جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « جانسون » در نشریات گروه « ادبیات و زبان ها »

Lakoff and Johnson's research in the field of metaphor proved that the uses of metaphor are not limited to the field of literary studies and are rooted in human thought that one of the manifestations of it is language. Conceptual metaphor is a term in cognitive linguistics that explains most of the metaphors around us along with the origin-destination pattern. In Masnavi, Rumi has used the conceptual metaphor of light as a linguistic tool to expand cognitive meanings and concepts. This research answers the question through a descriptive-analytical method How does the contemporary theory of cognitive linguistics match the conceptual metaphor of light in Masnavi? Finally, we concluded that the conceptual metaphor of light refers to the absolute essence of Hazrat Haqq, the mirror of guidance, the guide of the religion, the sun of truth, and the expression of Ana al-Haqq (I am the Truth) of selected saints. Due to the large volume of Masnavi's hundred verses, a statistical sample was selected from the second book, in which the word "light" is used 122 times.

Likoff and Johnson"s research in the field of metaphor proved that the uses of metaphor are not limited to the field of literary studies. They believe that metaphor is rooted in thinking and one of its manifestations is language. Therefore, conceptual metaphor is a term in linguistics that refers to understanding an idea or a conceptual field based on another idea or conceptual field. . Based on this theory of contemporary metaphor, the functions of the metaphor of noor and image clusters related to it, i.e. vision and hearing, knowledge, noor, God, etc., were expressed and discussed in Masnavi. The purpose of this research was to find out how the conceptual metaphor of noor in the Masnavi can have a purposeful semantic correspondence with the contemporary theory of linguistics.

Therefore, in this research, the conceptual metaphor of noor based on the theory of Likoff and Johnson in the first book of the Masnavi has been investigated with a descriptive analytical method.

Rumi has used the conceptual metaphor of noor in Masnavi as a linguistic tool to expand the meanings and epistemic concepts. For this reason, the writers have analyzed the first book of the Masnavi to get the conceptual metaphor of noor along with the semantic mediators and they have found that knowledge in the first book of the Masnavi is an epistemological category and Rumi is in agreement with this conceptual idea that the universe is light. He considered pure noor as vision, hearing, noor, existence, etc., as well as a means to explain the category of annihilation and survival.

In this regard, significant results have been achieved. Several meanings have been obtained, including noor as a perfect human being, as the sun, moon, food, etc. And the general result is that the assumptions of conceptual metaphor are suitable for analyzing and explaining the abstract categories considered by Molavi Bastari.

One of the basic topics of cognitive linguistics is conceptual metaphor based on which an unknown and abstract conceptual field is inferred and understood by matching with known and concrete concepts in the human mind.that these well-known concepts originate from human experiences in all aspects of his life, including philosophy and literature. On the other hand, existentialism is a philosophical school that uses literature as a means to express its ideas; Existentialism's philosopher's turn to literary expression caused philosophy to merge with literature. Existentialist literature deals with themes such as loneliness, fear, sadness, emptiness, freedom, and death. Meanwhile, Arabic literature and especially poetry were not affected by the concepts of this school; And an example of this attention and luck can be seen in the poems of the contemporary Lebanese poet Khalil Al-Hawi, because the resonance and reflection of the elements of freedom and death are evident in his poems. He beautifully and artistically portrays the concepts of despair, pain, humiliation and despair caused by the consecutive failures of the Arabs and especially the uprising of 1967, which had a special echo in his soul and soul - all of which are abstract concepts - with concrete and tangible concepts in his poems. He has used conceptual metaphors to make his poems even more heartwarming. Therefore, the authors intend to analyze the conceptual metaphor in the existentialist components of freedom and death in Al-Hawi's poems with a descriptive-analytical method.

Authors usually choose the most appropriate style to influence the reader's mind. Style plays an important role in conveying content because people's desire to read a story depends largely on its writing style. Style is the mirror of the author and therefore, its change indicates the effect of external and internal factors on the style’s owner. Stylistics is the knowledge that describes the  characteristics of a text and then the relation beween these features and the text, and one of its branches is Statistical Stylistics. This approach takes into account the quantity of lexical phenomena in the text and based on the results of this survey, rules. In other words, it uses quantity to achieve quality. This article deals with statistical stylistics in the Nahj al-Balagha's letters. Letters 23, 30 and 73 were selected as samples and their style differences were extracted using two statistical theories, Busemann’s equation and Johnson’s theory, using the descriptive-analytical and statistical method. The result of applying these two theories to the selected samples is that according to Busemann's equation, style  of the letter30 is more literary than the other two letters, and style of letter 23 and 73 are almost similar. Also, according to Johnson's theory, the vocabulary richness in the letter 73 is more than the other letters, and letters 23 and 30 have approximately the same vocabulary richness. The results indicate the obvious effect of social conditions on how words are chosen by Imam Ali (PUH).

The author's style and how he chooses the words plays the most essential role in the correct transmission of meanings to the readers. Accurate identification and analysis of each person's style will help to understand his/her content. One of the newest branches of rhetoric that deals with this issue is statistical stylistics.
Statistical stylistics uses quantity to achieve quality and with the help of it, we will be able to recognize the characteristics of texts and compare them from different aspects. In this field, there are different theories; Including: Johnson’s theory, Youl’s theory, Busemann’s equation, entropy, NLP, etc. So far, a complete and one hundred percent accurate way to identify an author's style has not been introduced, and all that has been done is an effort to improve the method of identifying and distinguishing authors' style.This research is an attempt to identify Imam Ali’s style, using existing theories, which have not yet become science. In order to achieve this goal, we have used two theories to examine two factors of the theorists' desired factors and achieve more accurate results; So we chose Johnson's theory and Busemann’s equation.One of the conditions for the application of these two theories is the equality of the number of words in the selected texts and also their similarity in some fields (Maslouh, 1993, pp. 89 and 105); Therefore, in this study, from among 19 general categories of letters (Dashti, 2016, p. 357), we selected the "ethical category" and selected three letters 23, 30 and 73, with 84, 88 and 82 words, as samples. Therefore, they do not differ much in terms of subject and  the number of words.

 Literature Review

Statistical stylistics is based on achieving the stylistic features of  a literary work using quantity and numerical values, and to achieve this goal, it counts the lexical elements of the literary work or the length of words and sentences, Or focuses on the relationship between adjectives, nouns, and verbs (Blith, 1989, p. 37). The use of statistical methods in style analysis has proven to be a reliable method (Biber, 1995). In this research, the output of these methods is used as quantity to achieve quality.

  Busemann’s equation

Busemann counts the number of verbs and adjectives and then divides them. The result of this division is used as a criterion for measuring the literary nature of the text; Thus, the higher this ratio in a text, the closer its style to the literary style, and the less, the closer its style to the scientific style (Maslouh, 1992, pp. 73-74). This equation is as follows (the same, p. 77):In this study, we counted the number of verbs and adjectives in each letter and, after calculating the ratio, drew graphs related to it.
  Johnson’s Theory

In Johnson's method, non-repetitive words are called “types” and the total number of words is called “Tokens”. Therefore, the diversity ratio is called “Type Token Ratio” (TTR) (Maslouh, 1993, p. 91). In this study, we selected the first 80 words from each letter as a sample and divided them into 4 groups (20 words). Then for each example, drew a table and removed the repetitive words.After obtaining the output of both theories, we discuss the cause of their differences and the effect of social conditions on this difference.

This research led to the following results:According to Busemann's theory, the highest (VAR) relates to the letter 30 and the lowest to the letter 23; Therefore, the style of  letter 30 is more literary than the other two letters, and the style of letters 23 and 73 is similar, but the style of all three letters is literary.
  According to Johnson's theory, in the letter 23  has used the most repetitive words and in the letter 73 has used the least repetitive words; Therefore, the highest vocabulary richness is related to the letter 73 and the lowest is related to the letter 23.Differences in the type of verbs used in letters indicate the effect of circumstances on how words are chosen. For example when Imam (PUH) intends to change the behavior of the reader, he has used maximum number of verbs, which indicates the overcoming of emotions.  Imam (PUH) is tired of correspondence with Muawiyah in letter 73 and avoids repeated conversations. Therefore, this letter has the highest vocabulary richness, but in letter 23, Imam (PUH) intended to clarify his will for the public, so he used more repetitive words to understand the subject well; Therefore, the vocabulary richness of this letter has decreased. On the other hand, the reader of  letter 30, unlike the letter 23, is a special person; Therefore, its style is more serious and has more vocabulary richness.Since all three letters were written during the caliphate of Imam (PUH), the general conditions for all three letters were the same and slight difference in the results indicates relative stability in the style of letters.

It has been about four decades since George Lakoff and Mark Johnson brought up the notion of conceptual metaphor in their book Metaphors We Live By (1980). Since then, this theory has found numerous followers and accordingly it has been applied to Persian linguistic and literary researches as well. This essay contends that these two thinkers were not in fact the originator of conceptual metaphor and that, as Richards says, the theorization of this type of metaphor goes back to the olden times. The article attempts to compare literary and conceptual metaphor through the thoughts of Islamic and western masters of eloquence and the definitions of literary and conceptual metaphor that they have given in order to highlight the point that the definition of these two kinds of metaphor should be distinctly recognized and the consideration of one should not result in the overlooking of the other. Considering these two types as the same, undermines their value and independence and may even force the mind to choose one and ignore the other — there are cases in which this has happened or at least some writers have intended to do so. On the one hand George Lakoff’s insistence on rejecting traditional definitions of metaphors in his essay titled “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor” (1993) and on the other hand the enthusiastic acclamation of conceptual metaphor in recent years are some of the reasons for doing this study. In this article, however, neither of these two notions are denied and efforts are made to consolidate the status of both of them. So the outcomes of conceptual metaphor in both language and literature are illustrated and it is argued that this new type of metaphor does not cause limitation to literary metaphor, but can be an appropriate element in linguistic and literary studies.

This article examines the components of linguistic theory with a different approach in Shafiei Kadkani's three poems. The study of the knowledge of these propositions is done in the framework of the theory of George Lakoff and Johnson. In this context, cognitive analysis of the text is discussed in several discussions of schemas, cognitive metaphor, metaphorical individuality and its motifs. . By reading this kind of critique, in terms of mapping the system and the flow of linguistic cognition to the intellectual world and drawing the structure of the poet's poetry can be achieved. . This study shows how the linguistic elements and prominence's of language and the orienting schemas and metaphors that are the foundations of cognition can relate the form and content and beliefs of the author to the automated language and prove that similarities And the similarity of the examples of this theory in the discussion of schemas and metaphors in these three poems of Shafiei Kadkani is obvious and it can be seen that the form of these three poems is in proportion with the currents of formalism which is the output of the foundations of cognitive linguistics. . Evidence shows that in addition to the presence of directional metaphors and different schemas in Shafiei poetry, the occurrence of several schemas and metaphors on a similar text has been created and metaphors, in addition to modernity in the flow of the text, They have not given a clear ideology. In this research, samples are extracted from the Shafiei Kadkani poems in accordance with this concept. This article has been done by descriptive and analytical method.

Language is one of the most important human achievements to transfer thoughts and concepts. From the viewpoint of Cognitive Linguists, language is a tool to communicate everyone’s perceptual and cognitive system. Accordingly, poets and writers, especially mystics have applied language in a particular way so that it inspires cognitive, metaphysic, mystic and romantic concepts; also, they planned their themes by using language processes such as conceptual metaphor. Conceptual metaphor, at first developed by Lakoff and Johnson in the book “Metaphors We Live By”, is based on mind and experience. Lakoff believes that the themes of the human mind are fundamentally metaphoric, and even they are appeared through everyone’s daily life. As mysticism especially Mawlana’s mysticism is derived from his mystical experiences based on personal experiences, the present research has utilized the theory of Conceptual Metaphor by Lakoff and Johnson, based on types of metaphor and image schema for identifying the ideological themes of Mawlana by using a descriptive-analytic approach. In this paper, the conceptual metaphor of Love in animal symbols of Shams lyrics was propounded in two sections of schema and metaphor types. The results of the research suggest that the conceptual metaphor of Love represented in the two groups of force and path schema, and according to the types of metaphor, they are represented in the form of structural and orientation conceptual metaphors.

"Love" is the most important keyword of all mystical texts, especially in the military school of thought. Love cannot be spoken in a straightforward way. Therefore, mystics with various linguistic and conceptual tools have attempted to clarify their meaning of this essential category. In the military, love is also a key element that must be addressed. This article examines metaphors that are reflected in the centrality of love. The theoretical basis of the research is Likoff's and Johnson's conceptual / cognitive metaphor theory, in which, unlike the traditional approach, metaphor is not only aesthetic but also a cognitive tool for understanding the author's worldview and thinking. At the beginning of the article, there is a report on the conceptual / cognitive metaphors of love and these metaphors are analyzed and analyzed based on the source and destination domain. The purpose of this work was to identify the focal and major metaphors of love in Mathnawi and, ultimately, to explore the military view of love. In metaphor and content, these metaphors fall into four main groups: 1. A group that presents a positive image of love. 2. Those who highlight the negative traits and qualities of love. 3- Metaphors that are bilateral and ambiguous. 4. There are metaphors that are conceptually neutral. The cognitive analysis of each group / network of metaphors according to their central metaphors is presented. The results of the study show that burning, drunkenness, and subconscious love were more than any other aspect of military considerations, and in his view, all authority belongs to the beloved and he is in love with the follower, ill and in need of the beloved.

Language is one of the processes that has messaging and referential feature and induces cultural themes, customs, and thoughts of a nation. Interactive role of language in our social and cultural activities is undeniable. In addition to transferring the contents of referential contents, it reflects cognitive content, human perceptual system and inspiration of abstract themes available on mind. Therefore, cognitive linguists rely on the meaning as dominant element. Some theorists in field of cognitive semantics are including Lakof and Johnson. In Lakof’s viewpoint and Johnson, metaphor is something that surrounds throughout everyday life in field of recognition and perception based on experience and since the language of mysticism is also transferring cognitive and abstract content derived from personal experience of mystics, so checking conceptual metaphors in Maulvi's mystical patterns will help better understanding paranormal and metaphysical concepts and terms with this explanation this research aims using descriptive –analytic method based on Likof and Johnson's theory examines orientated conceptual metaphors at animal symbols (birds) of Shams poems. In Likof’s viewpoint, orientated metaphors has an inextricably link with physical-bodily status of each person and it is changeable depending on cultural and social tissues of society. Research results show that symbols implies on excellence meaning including soul and body and the symbols represents bodily and carnal implicit contents that in order will find semantic accordance with upward and downward orientated metaphors and metaphorical clusters of these contents have conformity with positive and negative function of these models.

. The most important of these modern trends that shed light on the text and Quranic text to see the language is astylistic or stylistics which purpose is to identify how to use the language in the text. Stylistics has different methods including statistical stylistics that by using statistics in the service of language leads to precise stylistic results in every kinds of texts. One of these statistical stylistics approach is Johnsonʼs theory of lexical diversity which is individually based on lexical statistics in each text to identify it’s lexical wealth. this article campares Mecca and Medina suras and these statistical stylistic studies according to Johnsonʼs theory firstly to explain the efficiency of this stylistic method in Quranic studies with a descriptive - analytic approach and secondly to show the potential diversity in lexical wealth of Mecca and Medina suras. So this study discusses the stylistic features of the two suras Mecca and Medina in the first step of a broader search and analyzes the verbal wealth by measuring vocabulary and then compares the semantic field of these suras based on lexical diversity results. Including results that there is no significant difference in lexical wealth of Mecca and Medina suras despite of these substantive differences.Medina suras semantic field concerns about community and sentences and semantic field in Mecca suras is about beleifs that can be proved with the help of lexical diversity statistics.

Using statistical methods has many benefits in the accuracy and precision of stylistic research. One of these methods is Johnson "vocabulary variety" which is based on core vocabulary. This article has analyzed the poetry of Forough Farrokhzad, Farzaneh Khojandi (Tajikistan)and Khaledeh Forough (from Afghanistan) from the perspective of this theory. By examining three thousand words from each poet, the overall proportion of variation of the words in the poetry of Farzaneh Khojandi is more than the other two. In addition Forough Farrokhzad and Khaledeh Forough have the same level of diversity. The next stages of calculations showed diversity in the poems of Forough is more than Khaledeh and Farzaneh. That means her mastery of the language of poetry in the second period of her career is more than two other. Also despite the fact that the three poets have used the same words, it is how they have used the words which has made the differences, resulting from the difference between the poetic style and attitudes and living condition of each poet.