جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « Bilateral » در نشریات گروه « اقتصاد »

Today, the dominance of currencies such as the Dollar and the Euro over the global trading system and the dependence of bank transfers on the SWIFT network have become the power measure to impose sanctions. International organizations, their facilities and regulations were used mostly as tools for global management in the past, but today the sorts of governance and relations between countries have changed with modern tools and organizations emerging alongside traditional tools and the possibility of intelligent data management. Therefore, in many countries both centralized governments and decentralized public institutions want to restructure the relationships and use of new tools such as "cryptocurrencies" for exchanges, financing and transferring assets in order to maintain their independence and economic status. The desire to decrease the monopoly power of dominating currencies throughout the global economy and its exchange platform, has expanded countries' incentives to conduct bilateral and multilateral exchanges with local currencies in the context of the new blockchain technology. One way of facilitating the exchanges and aversion of exchange rate volatilities is the creation of a “digital currency” backed by a portfolio of national and international currencies, gold, oil and other assets operating similar to SDR (Special Drawing Right), provides secure, fast and cheap clearing of payments among traders without the need for SWIFT. In this paper, we have examined the possibility of establishing a digital currency named “Ecomoney” between Iran and ECO member countries and major trading parties of Iran such as China, India and Russia.

Foreign or external debt is a tool that governments can use to encourage the investments and economic growth through the development of infrastructures. It plays an important role especially in the developing countries, as most of these countries suffer from the investment shortages and also budget deficits. In addition, in these countries, the savings and export revenues are not enough to finance new investments and import expenditures of the country. In recent years, borrowing has become an important economic problem not only for the developing countries but also for the developed countries as well. In many countries, global crisis and expansionary public policies have caused a rapid increase in the external borrowing.
It is widely known that the wise use of the external debts is necessary to enjoy the benefits of these debts. Otherwise, it will increase the burden on the country in the future and will harm the economy, when the time comes to pay the debts back. In other words, it is necessary to take into account the sustainability and also the efficient allocation of these funds. If the funds that have been raised through debt can be channeled to the investments, they will increase the growth rate of the country and also will make the country capable of paying them back in the future. Otherwise, these funds would reduce the economic growth rate, as a large portion of the government revenues will be used to pay back the debts. Several theories are introduced to link the debt to the growth. Debt overhang hypothesis is one of the theories that anticipates a negative relationship between the external debt and the economic growth. According to this hypothesis, when the external debt increases in a country, investors anticipate that the government will raise the tax rates in the future to gather enough funds to pay the debts back. Therefore, they will invest less, which will reduce the growth rate.
Liquidity constraint hypothesis is another theory that predicts a negative link between the debt and growth. According to this hypothesis, the country will need a large amount of credits in the future to pay the debts back and this will reduce the growth. The accumulation of debt is the third theory that states a negative effect of debt on growth. Based on this theory the government's investment on new technologies, human capital, and financial system will decrease over time. At the same time, a higher debt will increase the uncertainty in the economy which will raise the interest rate and will result in a lower investment.
Considering all these issues, this paper examines the impact of external debt on the economic growth in Iran over the period 1980–2013. To that end, the ARDL approach to co-integration is used. This paper differs from the other papers on this issue in two aspects. First, the effect of the external debts on the economic growth is examined taking into account the presence of different macroeconomic policies. Second, the external debt is divided into bilateral and multilateral debts and their effect on the growth is examined separately.
The impact of external debt on growth is analyzed allowing external debt to interact with the macroeconomic policy index. In addition, the ratio of the external debt to the GDP, the ratio of debt service to the export, and the ratio of multilateral external debt to total external debt also included in the model to examine their effect on the economic growth in Iran.
The results show that external debt has a negative impact on growth, but this adverse effect can be reduced or even reversed in the presence of sound macroeconomic policy. Moreover, the bilateral component of the total external debt is the part that retards the economic growth.