نشریه اطلاعات جغرافیایی (سپهر)
پیاپی 52 (زمستان 1383)

Innovations in technology take place when new methods replace current techniques. The initial stage is usually limited to something that can be called "modernization." It may take some time before the next step is implemented and results of new applications are evaluated and understood. It may take a long time before organizational structure and procedures are adapted to an innovation, and even more time may be needed before theoretical and cognitive consequences are realized. After the new concepts are combined with methods following practical applications, real success will be achieved. Only then is the implementation of modern technology at its full potential and its practice optimized. The MARC Project of the Library of Congress is designed for exchange of bibliographic information in a form readable by computer. The purpose of the system’s design is to reduce the costs of distributing the card catalogs amongst the library community. The system was later used for advanced work such as information retrieval system and listing.

Military forces currently limit their activities to near-space, and it is in this very near-space that critical missions such as identification, precautionary missions, target achievement, tracking, telecommunications, navigation, meteorology, medical activities and investigation and research missions are conducted in an environment completely different from land, sea or air. Different geographic factors assume different meanings in space. Therefore, any space activity requires familiarity with concepts required for maneuvering in the modeling environment.

Humanity has long been trying to prevent rain floods and storms, and hoped to have the opportunity to control weather and atmospheric phenomena. In recent years, there have been a great deal of discussions about artificial rain. It is supposed, or even promised, that it can be possible, irrespective of location and time, to produce the required rainfall. This has created more hope and expectation for artificial rainfall in human society. Today, with the rapid advent of meteorological knowledge and advancements in technology of data exchange, the thought of interfering in atmospheric events has seriously entered the realms of research and experimentation. But so far, meteorologists have come to the conclusion that it is possible to make preparations for accelerating or delaying some of the effects of climate only on a small scale. In recent decades, many efforts and research have been made to change the natural rate of condensation and precipitation processes in order to achieve goals such as artificial precipitation, mist elimination (especially at airports) and hail lightening, all of which relies on the present knowledge of human beings in the field of cloud physics. The onset of precipitation processes (solids or liquids) requires the presence of water droplets and precipitation kernels in appropriate size and sufficient quantities per unit volume. The nuclei spray method, evaluation of fog dispersion operations at airports, roads, sports fields, etc are also utilized. In general, the technology of fertilizing clouds has been considered by the researchers in the field of climate modification in three main categories, including: 1 . Limited and temporary control of precipitation 2 . Fog dispersion 3 . Hail prevention Due to diversity of climatic conditions in different regions and also geographical and topographical characteristics of each region, a method with a unique fertilizer can not be introduced for all geographical areas and climatic conditions.

Flood, as one of the most important natural disasters, has always been considered by human being, and in recent years the need to pay more attention to it is felt by the development of population, industrial and agricultural centers and increase of damage caused by flood. In this study, through a statistical survey and using the conventional statistical distribution in hydrology, it has been tried to estimate the magnitude and time of occurrence of flood in the watershed of Mohammad Abad in Gorgan with more accuracy. For this purpose, using the Smada software, the maximum daily flow rate in different return periods for each month was determined using appropriate statistical distribution. Estimates have shown that the appropriate statistical distribution is the Log Pearson Type 3. Floods with a return period of less than 25 years are more likely to occur in May and floods with long return periods, namely 25 to 200 years, in November. Furthermore, by determining the capacity of the Mohammad Abad River passage, it became clear that the village located at the downstream of the basin with floods with a return period of more than 25 years suffers from flood concentration and damage. Therefore, flood management plans need to receive greater consideration in these months in order to minimize the life and financial losses due to potential flood occurrences.

Water is one of the main factors of natural environment which has a great influence on other environmental factors and human activities. Climate elements have direct and indirect impact on human life. The climate type of each region represents vegetation, soil, animal life, water status, and, to a large extent, human economic activities including industrial, agricultural, tourism, etc. are controlled by the elements of the climate (Hobbs 1981) Climatic elements and parameters have applications in most of regional construction plans. Without attention to climatic elements and their exact study, most regional planning will certainly face difficulties. One of the best methods for recognizing the climatic elements of a region is having a comprehensive and basic information about these elements and their zoning. The zoning of climatic elements such as radiation, temperature, precipitation, humidity, pressure, etc. and preparation of their zoning maps can be used as a tool for planners. Today, Geographic Information System (GIS) technology is instrumental in geography. Accurate and advanced software of GIS (such as Arc / info, Arc / view, Arc /... GIS) and modern hardware (fast computers, scanners, plotters, printers, etc.), have, in addition to facilitating the work of geographers in the study and analysis of various scientific issues, increased the accuracy and speed of their operation. Currently, most branches of the science of geography utilize the GIS in urban, rural, regional, land lay, hydrologic, meteorological, environmental, etc. analyses and studies. The large region of ​​Azerbaijan (East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan and Ardebil) in the northwest of the country is one of the regions of the country with climatic diversity. Due to different topographical conditions and passage of western air masses, special climatic conditions have dominated the region. In this study, the elements of the Azerbaijan climate were analyzed and zoned using Arc / View software. Finally, the climatic zoning maps of the area were drawn up for each of the parameters.

In order to achieve a precise method of converting PAN photography from a spatial image to a spatial object, a mathematical model has been designed in which at least one GCP (Ground Control Point) is used to determine the external justification of images. This mathematical model was originally prepared for Spot satellite imagery, which uses multicolinear equations to provide a satellite path model, while the satellite height difference would be formulized as a function of time using high-order polynomial modeling. Initial orbital information is obtained from the given data and refinement is also done using the iterative least squares solution. This mathematical model was tested for three different states: (1) a single image (2) strip (caused by a detector during orbit passage), and (3) a stereo pair. For states (1) and (2), a mean error of 9.1 m in width and 7.6 in length can be obtained by using a ground control point (GCP) for modeling. Using a ground control point was identified from a map of scale 1:50000. Accuracy was 38.3 meters in width, 42.6 meters in length, and 23.8 in height for the stereo pair. The results confirm the model and somewhat suggest ideas with which PAN (IRS-1C) will be able to influence the future developments of photogrammetry and cartography. The software mentioned in this paper for modeling orbit altitude is part of SOFTSPACE, a digital photogrammetric station for working with IRS-1C PAN and Spot imagery stereo data, a multifunction software package for preprocessing, photo conversion into map, a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) and features compilation modules.

Rockfall is one of the important types of massive movements of mountain side materials. This natural phenomenon is considered a natural disaster if it affects residential settlements including urban and rural, communication networks and other human infrastructure, causing enormous casualties and financial losses. In addition to mountainous towns and villages that are exposed to this phenomenon, in recent years, beautiful natural landscapes and pleasant weather of mountainous regions have attracted great numbers of people. As a result, summer and snow cities gradually assume a generalized form. Apparently, there is no danger to these areas, while the evolution and formation of these areas is related to massive movements of the materials arising from the pre-glacial morphogenesis system, which occurs alternately after relatively long periods of time, and seriously threatens buildings, roads and other facilities as natural hazards.

Generally, great ideas are simple ideas. However, the specific analysis of any matter of importance is necessarily accompanied by complexity and difficulty. The fundamental concepts that lie behind a powerful paradigm are relatively understandable; opinions and beliefs that influence millions of people and guide the politics of nations (in the field of social sciences) should be accepted by all ordinary people of the community, not just the elite. Only such ideas form institutions from local to world level and become part of human heritage, that is, the principles and framework in which our life is defined. In the early part of the second half of the 20th century, there was such a concept of development. At that time, the meaning we already assume for development was rarely observed. The imperialist and colonial structure that dominated the world in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries did not provide much opportunity for social and economic progress in the regions today called developing countries. The colonial territories only served as the main supplier of cheap raw materials and labor, including supply of slaves (in the middle of the nineteenth century). In the richest countries of Europe, North America and Japan, economic growth was largely based on goals such as advancement and modernization. On the other hand, little attention was paid to issues such as equality and social justice. Fatal poverty, weakness and lack of social security system in Europe and the United States during the Great Depression showed that even in these countries, politics (and planning) is not in line with the needs of the public. At the end of the Second World War, collective understanding of issues and policies has evolved. The improvement of economic and social conditions for the majority became the main concern of states, and by eliminating the system of colonial relations, this situation was extended to poorer nations as well. Economic development with its social and institutional attachments in politics and theorization, as well as the Cold War between the two capitalist and communist poles assumed important positions, as a great historian of economics, has stated: "Economic Development in the contemporary meaning of the word did not exist until the 1940s. This concept, with reference to what is already assumed by it, refers to areas and countries that have developed less than others. On this basis, it is commonly believed that these countries should develop by some way if they are not to become poorer than they are, compared with other countries".

River land types have been created by erosion, displacement and sedimentation of unset materials through the flow of water. The type of river basin that are required to be described are butterfly alluvium, flood plains and deltas. The ability and capability of water to erode and transport soil and particles of rock depends on the speed of water and size of particles. Particle erosion, as compared with the continuous displacement of materials, requires great water velocities. When the velocities are less than certain limits, sedimentation occurs. Larger particles are thrown out and lined up along the river bed (bed load). Smaller particles are taken up and forwarded to the front (Suspended Load). Particular particles, especially sand particles of the same size, may be suspended or moved at different times depending on the speed of the river. Small particle erosion requires considerable speed, but as soon as they are displaced, they can be moved at different speeds of the river. The largest erosion and sediment transport occurs during the flood period. Increase in velocity and volume of water leads to an increase in the size and volume of materials that can be carried. The term "river capability" refers to the maximum particle size that a river can carry at a given speed.

In Japan, where the earthquake occurs frequently, natural disasters are important in urban planning. However, it is clear that the cities of Japan, with the exception of a few, have not been designed without providing any clear picture of urban safety definition based on previous studies on natural hazards. For the Japanese people who are plagued by many earthquakes throughout history, it is necessary to provide an image of the future of the city's form in terms of urban safety. On the other hand, recent computer technology has been able to improve the real-time control system after the Northridge earthquake in 1994 and that of Kobe in 1995. In this paper, a method of analyzing and designing a city based on urban safety perspective is emphasized. This method is called the MUSE, based on the Lynch’s 1961 theory of urban appearance, and some of the city's physical elements are defined as part of an organic system. Using the 3D Arc / View analysis, we can easily simulate the city in a visual fashion, and this is the action that took a long way to go through by the previous models. The authors have created vulnerable functions. (Moreau and Yamazaki, 1999) and proposed a method for assessing the risk of building collapse. (Moreau and Yamazaki, 2000). The use of these methods of urban safety assessments with MUSE is useful for risk assessment system. However, combination of MUSE with recent technology will be realized in the future.

In this paper, which studies the state of winds in the Golestan plain, the information of sixteen years (1969 to 1985) of Hashem Abad synoptic station of Gorgan were used. In order to better understand the data related to information processing and statistical analysis, the average number of times of occurrence, annual percentage of winds in the eight directions, the mean frequency of seasonal repetitions, dominant and second dominant wind, their percentage and velocity are presented through chart and graph.

The widespread use of GPS has been accompanied with great deal of success and has already evolved into a true 3D instrument. Therefore, the major attempt to complete a GPS project is often focused on elevation issues. This paper examines the GPS elevation-determination limits, including GPS measurements, geoid issues and datum. Next, the GPS elevation-determination is described with a look at three applications of deformation control, GPS mapping with instantaneous processing, and device control and guidance. In practice, GPS elevation-determination usually involves three aspects: 1 - Oval height measurement with GPS 2 - Applying the geoid model 3 - Adjustment of the orthometric (or normal) height so that the altitude base is appropriate. All of these issues create limitations, and the importance of each one, depending on the breadth and magnitude of the GPS mapping, is different, so here some of these limitations are studied in greater details.

Geography is the science of places”, “Geography is the science of connections”, “Geography is the science of human ecology”, “Geography is the science of dispersion”, and “Geography is the science of mutual relations”... are all the beautiful definitions of geography that have been expressed by the great scientists of this science, such as Vidal de La Blache, Griffith Taylor, etc. Each of the above definitions, while in the simplest form of expression, has certain complexities, which, after stating causes of various factors, has established the foundations of geography, and has been interpreted by geographic associations all over the world, and has been the founder of many thoughts and ideas that made a significant contribution to the advancement of geography in the world, so that in addition to the advancement of this beautiful human knowledge, it caused certain followers each explain the old ways and try to contribute to the progress of thoughts through critique and evaluation. However, from another perspective, the abovementioned scholars were not only the founders of a new tradition, but also helped their followers in their respective countries and in other countries to benefit from it and promote their thoughts, especially in their country, and this fact has been developing the science of geography in these countries and providing the ground for scientific advancement and other aspects of domination over the world both scientifically and colonially. In this paper, we try to recognize our share in geography and to know what geographic dominant ideas exist in our country? Or, with what point of view, a better and more appropriate thought can be chosen for the geography of Iran. With a brief look at geography in Iran, we will find that this science, along with the progress of other sciences in the world of Islam, was properly cultivated during this period, and the scholars of the Balkh and Iraqi schools, each with their own interpretations, made significant contributions to the flourishing of this era, even by writing the geography through pilgrimage literature.

Goverments, water planners and international organizations have warned in recent years that in the twenty-first century all conflicts will be on the issue of water. This issue has been increasingly utilized to justify building of new dams and palns of changing the path of rivers. but these dams and pipelines don't produce new sources of water, but merely carry water from one place of consumption to another (and usually from poor regions to wealthy ones, or from areas of prudent consumption of water to neglecting,wasteful ones)