نشریه اطلاعات جغرافیایی (سپهر)
پیاپی 83 (پاییز 1391)

Earth has many different characteristics and measuring its physical features is a key step in many applications. With the development of different sensors, measuring different aspects of these phenomena has been made possible. With these sensors, we can collect necessary data considering different objects and reach useful information by their processing.
Satellite imagery is used in different applications as an economic and easily accessed digital information resource. Multi-spectral and hyperspectral imageries make an important part of satellite imageries. Multi spectral images are produced by sensors which calculate energy reflected from ground surface just in a few bands of electromagnetic spectra. Images produced by hyperspectral sensors measure reflected radiations in a series of long and connected bands. Hyperspectral sensors are the most powerful imaging sensors regarding spectral resolution and their images consist of information in more than 100 spectral bands.

Land and its usage have always been the main theme and context in urban planning and actually it is the land which ultimately determine the destiny of urban development plan, mediating and supervising land use. This has always been one of social, economic and physical issues in recent urbanization. The present article considers land use in Sa’d Abad city. First, present situation of the land uses are investigated, then future plans are mentioned. Descriptive-analytic method is used. Theoretical framework is prepared using secondary research and other information are collected in a field study. To perform qualitative analysis, SWOT method is applied. GIS and AUTO CAD are used for drawing and analyzing information. Results indicate that we face shortage of most present land uses and surplus of some others which signifies lack of balance in land use which should be directed towards balance with concise planning.

Movements of sand and small particles (dust) because of wind occur in many different environments, but the phenomenon is much more powerful in arid areas and cover larger areas. The phenomenon is one of the most important issues arid areas face. In order to preserve buildings, agricultural lands, pipe lines and transport networks from sandstorms and from being buried in dust and sand, it seems necessary to create and develop monitoring tools and confront this natural phenomenon. Urban areas in arid lands can block movements of sand and dust suspended in wind. In arid lands and deserts population is centralized around ground water resources. Cultivated lands are limited which results in more pressure on the earth due to centralization and population being attracted to settlements. Thus, desert ecosystem near urban areas faces more damages, plant life faces destruction and soil structure will be damaged. Movements of sand and small soil particles increase and wind-related problems and issues display in a larger scale. In this regard, factors creating problem of sand and small soil particles depend on desertification factors which have gained attentions in recent years (A. J. Pilor and Honey, 1976; United Nation, 1977).
To decrease disagreeable results of sand and small soil particles movements, we need to gain enough information regarding the natural characteristics of such movements and identify factors accelerating this process, while trying to decrease the quality and quantity of these natural events. Therefore, the present article aims to identify natural characteristics, intensity, dispersion and movement of sand and small soil particles in arid areas and problems caused by wind processes. Then, the study seeks to create a new model to identify and observe sand and small soil particles movements. Furthermore, it tries to find a way to evaluate sand and small soil particles movements and dangers cause by wind erosion, and also a way to measure these movements precisely and bring them under control.

Human beings have spent many decades trying to confront and overcome the nature. This is a continuous confrontation and fight against the nature whose unbounded forces enlarge and result in more catastrophes every day. Recently, this endeavor and fighting have appeared much more useful, due to the scientific development and related communication and information strategies in crisis management.
In competitive environment, survival depends on not being taken by surprise and success is the reward of taking someone by surprise. Therefore, the necessity of being prepared and having a coherent plan to fight natural forces in the context of crisis management is obvious. The present study tries to define crisis along with its different forms and investigate factors which result in the importance of these phenomenon in human societies. Moreover, it introduces concepts of crisis management and its different phases while defining Telegeoinformatics sciences. Finally, a Telegeoinformatic structure was proposed to launch crisis management system

Darwinism which goes back to ancient times and around 5 B.C was scientifically introduced by Darwin in 19th century and have influenced different sciences like geography. Under this influence, new schools like geographic determinism and evolutionism emerged which then help in the creation of important ideologies like Fascism, Nazism, and aid proponents of this beliefs in rising to power.
Important theories like Ratzel’s critical environment theory explain the relation between geography and these ideas. However, new ways of thinking have developed in geography in contrast with these theories and schools. Discussions in geography of social anarchism by French geographer, Elisee Reclus, and Russian geographer, Petro Kroptkin are among these. The present article briefly refers to and investigates social Darwinism, mutual relation and influences of geography and this school, while explaining geographical space and the role of geographers.

Following the industrial, economic and social changes in recent decades, rural emigration to urban areas have increased and development of urban areas have caused different social damages. Nowadays, social damages are among the most important threats to the security of metropolises. Growing increase in the number of criminals in metropolises, especially in developing countries is the most important concern of urban managers. Considering the security, economic, social requirements of this issue, identifying effective factors in increasing urban crimes is the most important part of urban planners’ agenda. The present article seeks to identify factors affecting crimes and social damages as a mean for preventing and controlling them. Suburban areas are an important context for social damages and their development results in an increase of social-economic insecurity. Results indicate that instability of humanistic values can easily increase due to different damages and crimes (either in the form of deviation or sickness or disorder). Social and economic injustice and specifically slow cultural development have resulted in many urban crimes. Cultural and economic poverty is the most important factor in the development and growth of urban crimes and results in urban texture worn out. The present article investigates social damages theoretically and conceptually, while classifying effective factors in the occurrence of crime and damages in suburban environment into three different groups of social-cultural, economic and physical factors.

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a platform for saving, storing, managing and analyzing geographic information. It is designed to simultaneously work with geographic and descriptive data.
Nowadays, possessing timely data and exploiting necessary information are especially important. In this regard, Geographic Information System, as an important tool in managing ground related data, provide the possibility of exploiting necessary information and finding complex and hidden relationships among different phenomena. The present article investigates different applications of Geographic Information System in urban planning and urban development plans. To reach this aim, we first investigate background, evolution process, the systems’ principles and capabilities in the framework of software collections and then propose the procedure used in preparing two samples of urban development plan and explain the role of each GIS applications in the production of this plan and its function. Results indicate that with growing development of modern technologies, the application of geographic information system in urban planning has increased and satisfy urban development plan in the context of qualitative, quantitative and digital analysis. Then, some problems facing GIS application in the system of macro planning and urban planning in Iran are mentioned.

Historical geography of Shia has attracted attention of many. The special importance and benefit of this dimension of social-historical discussions is considering the geography of different classes of Shia population while investigating its historical evolutions. This is especially important since it provides researchers with a better and more precise understanding regarding social position and situation of Shia in the Islamic world and its influence on social, political and cultural changes in the Islamic world. The present article will focus on this issue considering Shiit countries throughout Islamic history.

Accessing correct and timely information about urban land use and coverage is especially important for urban planning and management, achieving sustainable development in urban areas and optimal application of land.Impenetrable surfaces are a part of urban coverage with an effective role in changing landform and the quality of urban environment. Regarding the importance of such surfaces, different methods of mapping impenetrable surfaces and investigating its changes with satellite imagery exist. These methods can be classified into five general groups: subpixel classification, neural network, classification with VIS model, regression tree model, and spectral composition analysis. Generally, each of these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, but they are mostly used to detect and classify impenetrable surfaces. The present article investigate impenetrable surfaces and their importance, along with different methods of mapping these surfaces.

Precipitation and temperature can be considered among the most important climatic elements in any area. Phenomena like sudden increase or decrease in temperature and precipitation during a year or more can be considered a reason for climate change in the area. The present article applies usual time series method to investigate annual and seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation in Bandar-e Lenge synoptic station during the statistical period (1966-2000). Analysis indicate that average precipitation in Bandar-e Lenge during the statistical time period is 154.7 mm. Standard deviation and coefficient of precipitation changes are respectively 96.7 and 63 percent. Seasonal trend of precipitation changes in the statistical period indicates that precipitation showed a decreasing trend in spring and summer and an increasing trend in autumn and winter. Seasonal distribution of precipitation in Bandar-e Lenge during the above mentioned period (spring to autumn) contains 7, 2, 21, 70 percent of the annual precipitation respectively. In order to determine annual temperature, frequency of decreasing periods, definite temperature increase and degree of changes in each thermal period were calculated. Temperature changes more severely in summer and autumn, while the frequency of changes in winter and spring is more orderly. Moreover, the statistical period of 1966-70 is introduced as the most arid period of the study years.

The relation between ENSO and fluctuations in monthly precipitation patterns of Iran ENSO phenomenon is a combination of El Nino-Southern Oscillation and an important telecommunication patterns in southern hemisphere which affect weather condition all over the globe through changing temperature and precipitation patterns.
Different researchers have studies the influence of this phenomenon on temperature and precipitation patterns of different areas of the world, including Iran in different cold and hot phases and found significant differences. Different areas react differently to ENSO with different time lags. Thus, the present article studies the relation between ENSO and seasonal/monthly precipitation in Shahr-e Kord.
The present article analyzes the relation between these patterns through a 44 year period (1957-2000) of precipitation in Shahr-e Kord synoptic station and temperature anomaly in Nino 3.4 region. Results indicate that Shahr-e Kord precipitation pattern during the mentioned period in May, June, August, October and November is related with ENSO, yet the level of this relation differs. Therefore, the correlation between ENSO and Shahr-e Kord monthly precipitation pattern is more significant in June, May (spring season), October, and November (autumn). According to the findings, we recognized a negative correlation between ENSO and precipitation in Shahr-e Kord. Results indicate that the most significant relation is between temperature anomaly in Nino 3.4 and Shahr-e Kord precipitation with a four month lag.

Ongoing population increase have resulted in an ever-increasing demand for food and agricultural products, and agricultural products do not satisfy national demands in the current situation. Despite the goal of realizing self-sufficiency, a large proportion of the demands of a population which is increasing with such a trend will inevitably need to be supplied from foreign countries. However, agricultural products in global market are also limited and supplying national commands have faced some challenges. This situation requires paying more attention to agriculture, taking effective and quick steps toward increasing production and supplying required foodstuffs. The present study seeks to identify spatial inequities and determine the ranking of each cities of Fars province in agricultural section. Descriptive-analytic method inspired by composite statistical model of Human Development Index is used, which determines agricultural developmental level across the province. SPSS software is used for data analysis. Results indicate that different cities rank differently in indices, which is a result of unbalanced development of these cities in agricultural section and its indices.

On the occasion of World astronomy day and the eighth student astronomy seminar, Mohammad ibn Zakariya Razi student research center in Shahr-e Ray launched an international project with the title of “Measuring Earth to Moon distance using non-Euclidean trigonometry” with the cooperation of America, India, and Italy, Thailand. A large population of students in the participating countries took part in the project. Moreover, different national astronomy groups and societies cooperated. The present article seeks to provide practical astronomical and mathematical training on international level, so that students will be able to confirm figures and numbers discussed in scientific books and centers. In these measurements, students in Rey research center astronomy group took part in measuring the moon azimuth angle and its elevation in Picard region on its surface. The measurement results along with other tests performed by national and foreign groups showed an appropriate level of adaptability with pre-measured standard values.

Summarizing DTM received from LIDAR data is performed to generalize (decrease details) and strengthen important features. In order to incarnate ground surface, we need to strengthen some especial features like routes and dames. The present article seeks to prepare an algorithm to extract routes. Using summarization algorithm, it is possible to estimate route network and LIDAR filtered cloud points.

The current situation in realms of economy, society, culture or in the area of assessing social influences may be considered inappropriate and thus different actions have been performed to improve the situation. Accordingly, different forms of development, like economic development, social development and/or political development occur.
But, people generally only recognize economic development. Societies take 3 types of actions to reach economic development:Policy making, designing plans and implementing projects
Policies have a general and software-like nature. They are usually holistic. All developmental policies, plans and projects are generally called developmental action.
Annually, multiple policies, tens and hundreds of plans and thousands of projects are designed and implemented with the aim of realizing development-i.e. improving the current situations which are considered inappropriate. Developmental actions seem to have a technological nature and up to 3 decades ago experts ignored the social nature of development and its diverse influences on people’s life.
It has been proven for about 3 decades that developmental actions do not simply have technical dimensions and apart from the negative influences they have on people’s lives, their success in reaching their goals depends on some social variables. Nowadays, we know that the success of developmental actions usually requires considering social preconditions.
Every year, many dames are constructed and people living in the dam reservoir area will be forced to leave the area. Many irrigation channels are built and their rural applicant complain about construction charges and the fact that they cannot efficiently use them. Governments plan and implement diverse policies to appropriately control fuel consumption, targeting subsidies, giving financial and credit facilities, transferring natural resources, building refineries and oil/gas facilities, developing tourism, constructing roads and performing projects like railroad, pipe lines and many other actions which all affect people’s lives.

The present article considers specific challenges modern, postmodern and electronic cities cause from a spatial perspective and finds that virtual space of electronic city aid real urban space, prepare a plan for it and reduce its dimension in accordance with the scale, size and need for focus and variety. People’s specific attitude transform the real and virtual space in every geographic space and create a specific geography in each of these spaces.

Providing security, decreasing crisis in cities, and observing some principles and arrangements of passive defense with the aim of decreasing the consequences of such crisis are some of the most important issues which should be considered in urban designing and planning. Iran has always witnesses many catastrophes (war, etc.) and suffered many financial damages and casualties. Thus, theoretical and practical position of defense against crisis has gained significant importance in this area. Passive defense and considering its principles in urban designing and planning can decrease the damaging effects of such crisis. The ability to integrate data for modeling, locating and determining land suitability by rating territory are some of the most important capabilities of GIS, based of which it stands out as a special and exclusive system. GIS identifies hazardous points by integrating and combining benchmarks. The present article clarifies the relation between passive defense and urban planning, especially urban land use planning and assessing. Moreover, it considers the role of passive defense in protecting citizens and urban infrastructures across Sanandaj city using Arc GIS10 and AHP

Researches indicate that around one third of lands are located in arid areas and Islamic republic of Iran is also located in arid and semi-arid area of the world. Apart from aridity, a significant part of the country, i.e. around 25 million hectares are wastelands. But beyond this most permanent, seasonal and temporal rivers and many important inland lakes have saltwater which worsen this sad situation. On the other hand, more water is extracted from groundwater sources to satisfy ever increasing demands. For example, 79837 million m3 water was extracted from ground water resources in 2002-2003 water year which compared to 2001-2002 water year has increased up to 2.5 percent. Inappropriate and wasteful use of groundwater also results in salinization of freshwater resources.
Southern provinces and cities bordering the desert have lots of saltwater. Water shortage and water saltiness along with salt salinization have even reached agricultural villages and lands are no longer profitable. Most aqueduct, especially those in southern parts of the country and those bordering the desert have dried. There were around 40000 aqueduct which reached 26307 in 2004. Many lands are now barren and desolate. Irregular and unplanned extraction of water from aqueducts, springs and freshwater resources by deep and semi-deep wells have decreased freshwater resources to a great degree and have gradually increased saltwater, water shortage crisis and drought crisis. This crisis is an alarm indicating a massive crisis of water shortage. Planners and authorities should see this crisis as an important religious and divine responsibility and try to find a compassionate and responsible solution. Before it is too late, they should manage and protect water resources, try to preserve rural agriculture and avoid wasting water and polluting its resources, which are shortly discussed in the present article.