نشریه حکمت سینوی
پیاپی 26-27 (پاییز و زمستان 1383)

A survey of the validity of induction is deemed necessary for the reasons of a very close relation between the principle of causality and one’s capability of forming an opinion of things general within sciences, and the dependency of the approval of the above-mentioned principle of causality on the necessity of induction. The present paper undertakes to investigate the relation between induction, i.e. the discretion of things general from things minor, and special versus general causality. Primarily, the survey takes up the viewpoints of Hume and Martyr Sadr on complete and incomplete induction. It presents critical comments on the Aristotelian division, and probes into problems with the incomplete induction. Then it presents its responses and solutions in view of Hume and Sadr. Finally, the study draws the conclusion that most examples are related to causality and, through it, to induction, not to the principle of causality. Nonetheless, in discussing habits Hume mentions the necessity of cause and effect relation in connection with causality principle. In discussing induction, the following issue is also taken up, namely whether one thing, inexperienced at a time, in a place, and under certain conditions will bear the same effect in other circumstances.

Discussion about existence and essence are some of the most significant topics of debates in Islamic philosophy. In philosophical contexts the term essence is used in the two following meanings, namely ‘what is said as a reply to the question about what a thing is, is then the thing’ and ‘what a thing comprises’. Since its primary meaning is related to a thing’s limit, i.e. all existing things have a limit, philosophers’ claims in relating it to God are inconsistent. Avicenna is a scientist who clearly considers the relating of such a meaning of essence to God as impossible. In his opinion, relating this meaning to the Necessarily-Existing, which means exactly the same as the truth of the necessary being, is inconsistent.Along with probing into Avicenna’s reasoning based on the denial of the essence of the Necessarily-Existing, the present paper also aims at pointing out the negative consequences of relating the concept of essence to God. It also endeavors to shed more light on the issue on the basis of the viewpoints of two of his reliable and outstanding annotators, i.e. Imam Fakhr Razi and Khajeh Tusi.A correlative examination of their critical study and comments enables the reader to follow the discussion on the fact that the Necessarily-Existing can impossibly possess an essence, which is substantiated in secondary religious principles.Moreover, the present paper touches on the following philosophical concepts: the denial of substantiality, the denial of material and difference, the denial of limit, the denial of conceptual co-operation, and the denial of likeness and oppositeness among other things, as an additional evidence for the denial of God being an essence.

One of the most important issues which, on a deep philosophical level, strikes the human mind, is the issue of how the multitude of creatures has come into being at the inception of existence, and what the composition of the world created by God is like. By way of tracing the development of the issue both historically and briefly, the paper aims at elaborating on a special view, which in short presents the inception of the world, i.e. the theory of emanation.Plotinus puts the theory forward. He is the first philosopher to discuss the quality of the world’s coming into existence from the First Source. He also bases his own interpretation of the world on the very same theory. He has deservedly had an influence on the Islamic philosophers’ thought by way of his book Apology, a concise collection of his works. Extreme influence of his theory can be seen in Sadra’s Hikmat-i Mote’alieh. On the basis of his own principles of ideological thinking as well as the special terminology of Hikmat-i Mote’alieh, Sadra was able to analyze the emanative sort of creation. In presenting a general scheme of the various worlds of existence, he arrived at the theory of existential unity in his philosophy.

The basis of true knowledge of monotheism and mysticism is established on the reality of existence and its unity, which is divided into the unity of existence, on the one hand, and the unity of essence, attributes and actions, on the other hand. They result in annihilation in the Divine dwelling in the Light of His Existence.In confirmation of this heavenly meaning, the believers in ‘the unity of intuition’ are of the opinion that as the seekers of divine truth reach this stage of dignity, they will see all the divine qualities and attributes dissolve into the unity of essence of the Lord, and any observation other than that unity of essence will refrain from their souls. Anything else disappears, whereas pure monotheism comes into existence. It is at this stage of dignity that they will utter ‘There is no one but Him.’The believers in ‘the unity of existence’ hold that as the conjoined mystic and the passionate devotee, after reaching this stage of dignity, find that there is nothing but the united existence of the Lord Almighty, which is reflected in the mirror of existential manifestations. The true monotheist is the one who believes in the unity of plurality and singularity while conjoining the higher position of collective dimension.Admitting that both of these ranks belong to the conjoined mystic, the present study examines the difference between these two approaches, namely whether it is a single rank with two names or two separate ranks. To arrive at a conclusion one has to, first, briefly consider the meaning of unity, existence, plurality, intuition, and theosis, i.e. the annihilation in the Divine, then examine the grounds that give rise to such approaches. Finally, the study provides responses to the questions posed.

Faith is the first value that people are invited to by way of religious teachings. Also, faith is said to be either a verbal action, emerging from the heart, or a mental one, originating from intellect, or just consisting of the components attributable to the human heart, language and physics. Each of these three items play a significant role in the realization of faith. Along with them intellect and intellectual contemplation have, in addition, an important share in it. Also, the human being paves the way, by means of his/her practical obedience and submission, for faith to reach realization. All Muslim thinkers and scholars, with the authority of opinion, have stated their special interpretations of what faith is, within the framework of their scholarly ability and authority. Muslim thinkers explain the concept of ‘what faith is’ to be as follows: knowledge and awareness; knowledge reached at by intuition or discovering the truth; cordial faith and confidence; whole-hearted conviction; the heart’s inclination and acknowledgement of an issue; feelings and various states of the heart; practical obedience; general cordial fidelity; the statement of a belief along with obedience; and cordial trusting accompanied by the discovery of the metaphysical; and finally certainty obtained by way of knowledge. Since true faith has a variety of aspects – and is therefore very complex by nature – some thinkers have not paid attention to all of its aspects, thus delimiting it to some of its aspects. By way of analyzing these aspects and observing their positive points, it seems that true faith is the heart’s inclination and conviction whose attainment depends on certainty obtained by way of knowledge. As something that exists, the trueness of faith has, nevertheless, to do with the whole personality of the human being. On the one hand, there is no distance between true faith and the human’s practical observance of all that faith requires. On the other hand, true faith manifests itself within the human’s emotional and experiential spheres, as it creates the special emotional states, such as love, hope to God, reliance and satisfaction. The practical observance and emotional states turn instantaneously after their implementation into faith within the human being.

During the first centuries of the advent of the holy religion of Islam, the theosophical faction of Mu’tazilah came into existence as a consequence of various influences from within and without the Muslim community. This theosophical faction, which grew to a remarkable extent during the latter years of its existence, was influenced by the economic, social and political conditions of the era. Some orientalists have exaggeratedly claimed that the formation of the faction entirely took place due to external influences. Nonetheless, considering the circumstances and conditions of the Islamic community of that era, it is impossible not to ignore their role in the formation of the faction. Similarly, it is even possible to trace the causes, within the Mu’tazilah faction itself, that brought about discord internally. The present paper investigates the causes of the rise of the theosophical faction of Mu’tazilah along with their factious theosophy.