فصلنامه مطالعات راهبردی
پیاپی 1 (پاییز 1377)

A Critical Approach Theories which try to explain political development have a eurocentric approach to it.They do not pay attention to different cultural settings and historical experiences of non-western countries. Because of some fundamental socio- cultural differences, politicaldevelopment and democracy are different in different countries. Therefore it is better tospeak of different types of democracies and political development. Western experiences andperceptions can not be generalized to others countries. Each country should develop itsown model of development according to its own experiences and socio-political conditions.Western theories can not prescribe the final model for development to third worldcountries. Their insights should be used but it is the country-specific social, political,cultural and economic conditions which determine its own appropriate model fordevelopment.

In a comprehensive model for political development, three main elements- nation,state, and power- should be taken into consideration. This article examines the role oflocal councils in regard with political development and its components. Although councilsmay be seen as the symbol of people's participation in socio- political affairs, this shouldnot lead to an underestimation of the pathological aspects of the implementation of the"Councils Act". Some of these aspects are analysed in this article: disequilibrium in theprocess of political development, lack of supportive foundations for the implementation ofthe Act, etc.

Culture is an important factor in the destiny of nations and plays a significant role inpolitical development. In the first part of the article, after defining development and itsgoals, the author turns to political development and introduces cultural development asone of its main components. The second part of the article deals with politicaldevelopment in Iran. The author examines political culture and its main characteristics inIran. Lack of motivation for achievement, the influence of myths, too much respect fordescent, emotionality, "imitationalism", subjectivism, and a tendency toward violence areintroduced as the main cultural barriers to political development in Iran. The authorsuggests that political development cannot be achieved unless these cultural obstacles areovercome.

Ethnic conflicts have been studied and explained from various perspectives. Differentaspects of these conflicts have been analysed and explained by many scholars. Inmulti-ethnic countries, the impacts of ethnicity, ethnonationalism and ethnic conflicts ondevelopment programs and their implementation should be taken into consideration. Thisarticle examines four approaches to ethnic conflict and development: traditional, moderen,transitional and postmodern. The author applies some of the insights of these theories toethnicity in contemporary Iran.

If development is seen as an even process of growth in various parts of the society, itneeds management. Specifying the goals of development and making appropriate policiesare related to available means and agents. Management can coordinate these componentsof a development program. At the same time, in the process of development, managementshould be developed i.e., it should improve and spread to all aspects of social life. Theimprovement of management means specialized training, better techniques, and continuousevaluation. Appropriate management plans better, organizes more efficiently, appoints moreefficient agents for development programs, and directs the process of development moresuccessfully. This article concludes with some advice for better management ofdevelopment in the Islamic Republic of Iran.

The existence of a strong new middle class is usually regarded as one of the socialrequirements for development. Although modernization in Iran during the Pahlavi era ledto the emergence of a new middle class consisting of bureaucrats, professionals,businessmen, etc., the development programs were not successful. The new middle classdid not support the Pahlavi state and did not comply with its modernizing efforts. Thisarticle suggests that the neo-patrimonial structure of power in Iran is in contrast with the empowerment of the new middle class. The existence of this political structure in Iran ledto political alienation of this class. That is why despite the modernizing efforts of the state,it was not successful in coopting the new middle class. This can partly explain the failur of modernizing efforts in Iran in the pahlavi era.

Iran experienced a high rate of economic growth in the 1960's and early 1970's. Thisgrowth, however, cannot be equated with economic development because it did not lead toa self- sustaining productive system nor did it reduce poverty. This article suggests that thestate had a key role in this regard. The Pahlavi state was the main economic actor in Iranduring the years 1962-78, but it could not provide the basic requirements for a successfuleconomic development. Some of its main feautures were responsible in this respect: it wasan authoritarian rentier client state. All of these characteristics contributed to its counter- productive and anti-development policies.

One of the important issues in the process of development is the management of ethnicconflicts. Development cannot be achieved unless ethnic conflicts are resolved. Ifminorities' rights are not recognized, the process of development may be interrupted bypolitical violence. This article attempts to offer an effective model of ethnic- conflictmanagement on the basis of various countries' experiences. The political groups shapedaround ethnicity are the main focus of this article. The relationship between the state andthese groups are fully examined. The author argues that the recognition of minorities'rights, the security of the political entity, democratization, and civil and political libertiesare the main components of an efficient management of ethnic differences.

This article examines the process of political development and the five crises societiesmay encounter in this process. Political development refers to the transformation of politicsboth in type and style. Since informal political processes challenge the formal ones,political development is not a smooth process. Five types of crisis may emerge: crises ofidentity, legitimacy, participation, distribution, and penetration. The author defines eachcrisis, clarifies their interrelationships, and discusses their impact on political development.Three measures - equality, capacity, and differentiation- are introduced and all types ofcrisis are evaluated according to their relationship with these measures. If these crises aresuccessfully resolved, the result will be political development.