مجله جلوه هنر
سال چهاردهم شماره 1 (بهار 1401)

As a visual medium that produced stylistically distinct illustrations during Injuid, Muzaffarid, and Timurid eras, the Shiraz School of miniature featured a visual language that can be considered different from other schools in terms of continuity, empiricism, and the role of time. The present research proposes that if time is seen as a major contributor to the stylistic flourishing of the school, then its characteristics can be studied both synchronically and diachronically. The synchronic and diachronic approaches allow visual texts, such as miniatures, to be analyzed on the level of a specific period of time or a sequence of different periods, with the latter approach also enabling us to understand how each unit of a visual text has evolved in different situations. What makes them so significant is that they can be used to distinguish two types of semantics in a given visual text. Illustrations created throughout the active years of the Shiraz School-to be a tightly-composed scene, a landscape, or a portrait-can be analyzed using synchronic semantics, often with the purpose of exploring their intended meaning. Also, diachronic semantics makes it possible to analyze how the meaning of an illustration has evolved over time. Aiming to explore the role of time in Shiraz School miniatures and in relation to the synchronic and diachronic approaches, this research tries to answer the following: “In what ways can time be conceptualized and represented in a miniature, and how can the synchronic and diachronic approaches be employed to lay out the visual language of miniatures and to explore their evolution through history respectively?” Reviewing the existing literature and visual evidence, this descriptive/analytical research first studies different roles of time in a qualitative way, and then explores the distinct synchronic and diachronic approaches before analyzing and comparing their features in the context of Shiraz School illustrations and the associated factors. The population consists of illustrations depicting historical and epic scenes from Shahnameh, as they best represent the overall style of the diverse works created throughout the three periods of the Shiraz School. Results suggest that the role of time in Shiraz School miniatures emphasizes not only the importance of learning about linear, qualitative, linguistic, narrative, and spatial times, but also the necessity of understanding how sociocultural affairs affected the illustrations’ composition, use of perspective, and way of guiding the viewer’s gaze.Valuable writings and research were considered in the course of conducting this research that from which one can refer to the article: “The Semiotics of Time and the Passage of Time: A Comparative Study of Verbal and Visual Works” Written by Farzan Sujoudi (1390) noted that is close enough to the topic at hand. Article "Investigating the Concept of Time and Place in Iranian Painting" The work of Mustafa Goodarzi and Elnaz Keshavarz (2007) In expressing the particular view of the Iranian painter to the analysis of two concepts of time and place and and how to reduce and eliminate the physical use of these elements by mentioning examples. Also Jamal Arabzadeh and Parham Peyvandi (1979) in the article "A study of time and place in Bayesnagari's Imaginary Pictures, with a phenomenological approach" Studying Shahnameh's paintings based on phenomenological approach through which the mechanism of the artist's consciousness and perception of the phenomena of time and place and its impact on the creation of the work. With these explanation, despite some research on the concept of time in Iranian painting, So far, its role and importance have not been considered especially in the Shiraz School of Painting, with the focus on explaining the types of time and analyzing synchronous and simultaneous approaches And this is an indication of the novelty of the present study.The results showed that “time” had a central role in the medium development of Shiraz School. To answer the first question it should be said that the conceptualization and representation of time in the miniatures of the school are based on the linear, qualitative, linguistic and narrative times as well as spacetime. Accordingly, “linear time” is established in the relations of in-frame elements and on the other hand, it allows understanding the linear relations of different parts of the frame through intertextuality with the passage from the written text to the visual text and to outside of the frame. The passage of time and the occurrence of the events can be always understood in this way. However, “spacetime” includes linear, macro, reflexive and teleological aspects found in the miniature. Moreover, “narrative time” is not only displayed by the miniaturist (narrator) in the narrator/narrated binary, but is also dependent on the portrayal of the occurrence of the  narrated events and interactions by the main narrator of the story. In “linguistic time”, time is perceived not in the frame but outside of the frame and through textual and linguistic layers as well as associations made using language. In other words, the title of the miniature is substantially crucial in narrative reading of its time. Through this development, “qualitative time” refers to the internal and emotional aspects when the miniaturist paints the work to display the emotional quality of the miniature and reinforce its effects on the audience. In addition to the presence of different times in the miniatures of Shiraz School, the results indicated that based on the “synchronic approach”, the visual elements in the miniatures of the Injuids, the Muzaffarids, the Timurids separately possess positionality, directionality, and dimensionality, used in relation with other components and elements. In positionality, the common and general characteristics of Shiraz School can be found often in the tendency of miniaturists to use images with highly compressed compositions, emphasizing two or three dominant visual elements at the same time. It seems that the miniaturists sought to display their topics beside the surrounding elements, forming a relation between them and directing the viewer’s attention to the main elements, which express the intellectual aspect of the works. The simultaneous harmony of the background and foreground elements of the miniatures is characteristic of dimensionality and indicate the miniaturists’ tendency to escape flat visual spaces and attention to element planning. This also demonstrates the miniaturist’s interest in making the narratives visible in a dimensional space. Furthermore, directionality is an opportunity in the miniatures of Shiraz School to form a meaningful whole from the combinations of separate visual elements, resulting in an organized visual narrative. “Synchronic approach” allowed interpreting miniatures of Shiraz School in three consecutive historical periods and explaining the characteristics in terms of events and sociocultural conditions in the form of a text that is part of a historical system. Therefore, it was revealed that Shiraz School had different miniatures during the Injuid, the Mozaffarid, and the Timurid eras, and the visual language of the works were analyzed in terms of continuity and empirical contexts focusing on the importance of the role of “time” in an expression different from other artistic schools. In this regard, synchronic and diachronic approaches were used for textual-visual analysis of the miniatures in a particular time or consecutive layers of time. Put differently, synchrony was used to analyze the visual elements used together in relation with other components and elements, and diachrony was used to study the elements in the form of a text that is part of a historical system. Thus, aiming to analyze the role of “time” in the miniatures of Shiraz School, the study questions were answered using synchrony and diachrony.

Arabic poets in the early centuries, especially those who described wine, in addition to talk about wine, its pleasures and drunkenness, also described the bar, cupbearer and even the cups of wine. In describing the cups, they have not neglected to describe the images or drawings on them. These paintings, which, like the customs and traditions of drinking wine and different types of wine, are associated with pre-Islamic Iran, usually reflect images inherited from the traditions of the Sassanid period. Although the surviving cups from the Sassanid period are very few and it is not possible for us to see these paintings, but the poems of Arabic poets, especially in the Abbasid period, depict some of these paintings for us in the form of words. Representation of these types of paintings may make us more familiar with the art of painting in Iran and Iraq at the beginning of the Islamic period, which undoubtedly follows the tradition of Sassanid painting. In the following article, after a brief introduction about the paintings on buildings and other tools, which are mentioned in Arabic poetry, the most important themes of the paintings on wine glasses (cups) in the poems of the Abbasid era are discussed and these paintings are compared with the paintings of existing antiquities. This article is an attempt to show a part of Sassanid painting on wine cups that has been displayed in the poems of Abbasid poets with an interval of two to three centuries. These Images usually express the situation of the Sassanid court in joy and war.In their research on the characteristics of Iranian art, Iranian and Orientalist scholars have not paid much attention to Persian and Arabic literary texts and poems. Arabic literature in Abbasid times clearly shows the life, society, thought and art of pre-Islamic Iran. Although the reports of the Arabic poets of this period from the drawings on the cups may not be completely true, but because we have received few cups from that time, these reports can also be trusted.The research that Iranian and orientalist artists have done on patterns on clothes and dishes is based more on surviving concrete examples from the past and less on texts, especially Arabic texts. Therefore, we suspect that the issue raised in this article has not been comprehensively addressed so far. The value of this article goes back to the fact that Arabic-speaking poets may have spoken of images that are not concrete examples in museums or elsewhere and are new to researchers of Sassanid art. This research answers the following questions: How did Arabic poets in the Abbasid period and the Middle Ages AH describe wine glasses? What were the most important themes or motifs of the images on the wine cups in these periods?This research shows that, paintings on the wine cups of the Abbasid period And the Middle centuries, the ones in the hands or in front of the poets, were very much influenced by Sassanid art and reflected the favorite images of Iranians, which has become an important subject for poetic illustrations in Arabic poetry.The method of this research is descriptive-analytical and based on reading the remaining poetic texts from the first and middle centuries AH; where the poets also spoke of images on wine cups. After a brief reference to the history of describing the images of objects in Arabic poetry from the pre-Islamic period to the Abbasid period, the author deals with the general characteristics of the images on the vessels left from the Sassanid era, then extracts the images of wine cups from ancient Arabic poetry Has categorized and tried to compare them with existing objective and ancient examples.The main subject of the pictures on wine cups in the Abbasid period, the Sassanid kings, their courtiers and their political connections with Roman kings, are scenes of hunting, drinking, feasting, horseback riding and warfare, and there is almost no religious scene, family scene of the Sassanid court and herbal design.These images include the following images: Sassanid king, wine drinking, throne sitting, obeying people, the scene of the Sassanid army fighting, horsemen archery, Kasra and Caesar sitting together, Roman emperors surrendering in Kasra's palace, Kasra's captivity with the Roman emperor, predatory lions and dancing women, etc. Looking at the examples of cups inscribed with Sassanid images that we brought in this research, it can be said that most of these cups were depicted by poets living in Iraq and Iran in the second to fourth centuries AH. After this, the most abundance is related to the poets of the sixth to eighth centuries in the Levant and Egypt, and we see only one or two examples in the poems of the poets of the region of Andalusia (Islamic Spain) in the sixth and seventh centuries.Arabic literature in the Abbasid era and the Middle Centuries AH clearly reflects the life, society, thought and art of pre-Islamic Iran. Although the reports of Arabic poets about the designs on the cups may not be completely true, but because we have received only a few cups from that time, these reports can also be useful and reliable. Considering the abundance of these images in the poems of Iraqi poets in the second to fourth century, it can be said that from this time, the subject of cups painted with the image of Kasra and his Army in war and celebration, has become a famous poetic motif. Egypt in the sixth to eighth century, using imitations of Iraqi poets in previous centuries, used this issue; In other words, it is possible that they did not see these painted cups, but used this theme, imitating previous poets. As for Andalusia, it can be said with more certainty that the Andalusian poet spoke only on imitation of the poets of the East (Iraq) on many subjects, including the same cup with Sassanid motifs. The titles of the images that have been on the wine cups and the poets of the Abbasid period and the Middle Centuries have spoken about it are as follows: Kasra and Caesar together, Archery horsemen on horseback, the scene of the Sassanid army battle, the ceremony of visiting Kasra, the hunting of Kasra and his cavalry, the drinking of Kasra, the obedience of the people to Kasra, the surrender of the Roman emperor to Kasra, the captivity of Kasra to the Roman emperor, the welcome of the Roman emperor, the Christian religious leaders, the predatory lions and the singing women.

Iran is a land of great contrasts: a land of deserts and jungles, of snowy mountains and luxuriant valleys; Geography inevitably affects culture, and it is not surprising that in Iran is a number of different cultures any of which have produced different mythologies. No nation’s religion or myth can be understood separately from its historical background. Myth is a symbolic expression of the interrelationship established by man between various phenomena and man himself. Over all, myth is part of history, for myth embodies the views of man about himself, his world and its development. Thus, myth and history are completely intertwined in Zoroastrian belief. The Iranians understand the whole of their history, past, present and future in the light of mythology. To the ancient Iranian the divine was not a distant reality far removed from human experience but a factor of everyday life. Man’s daily and rituals life involves direct and immediate contact with the divine beings. Kār-nāmag i Ardaxšīr i Pābagān the oldest historical, romantic and mythical story from the Sassanid period has been made according to the beliefs and myths common among the people. While the story recounted the hero-king's wrath against the enemies and propagated his bravery, also, it reminded the religious rites and teachings of the believers. In this way, the people knew the king and felt united with him. The historical accuracy of this story is not in question; its myths are charters that display social design and moral and religious behavior; so that believers live according to it. Ardašir sees necessary the establishment of an official religion and the union between religion and the state in the existence person of the ruler, and in order to reach the government, he suppresses all his opponents. The alliance between religion and government had not been experienced at the national level until then. Therefore, the government needed the support of the people; In this way, the mental gods are embodied and help the hero or savior; research questions include: 1) Who are the mythical incarnate gods and the helpers of Ardašir? 2) In the Kār-nāmag, what did Ardašir do to show his popularity, glory and power? The purpose of this article is studying the mythological and ritual culture and anthropology of this story. In this research, the myths of the first part of the story are examined, that's mean, the myths associated with Ardašir, the founder of the Sassanid system, it has been studied analytically and descriptively. Studies have shown that, goddess of wealth Aši/Art, god of glory/ Farrah (Xwarrah), god of Victory/ Wahram, god of Fire/ Atar, god of Obedince/ Sraosha, these gods were the helpers of Ardašir in this story. The god of wealth is embodied in the role of Ardavan's daughter in the story and reaches the kingdom with she and other gods of Ardašir. Religious people know the Art/ Aši or the angel of wealth and abundance and the benefactor of Farrah, they consider the company and help of Ardavan's daughter as the embodiment of the angel of wealth and his company. Thus, god of Art/ Aši, the giver of Farrah, glory and wealth in the embodiment of the king's daughter, who brings the treasure of the father and the good news of the astronomers for hero, rescues him from prison and death, and for promotes the religion and unity of Iran and the glory of Iranians,  accompanies Ardašir for unity religion and government. In this way, Farrah Kiani moves away from the previous king and accompanies the hero-king. After the time of  the Kiygashtasb king, Farrah did not join anyone. The kingdom no longer boasted of having Farrah. But Ahuramazda saved it for the Iranians until the Day of Judgment. Farrah who according to myth, reaches the savior at the end of the world, in the Kār-nāmag i Ardaxšīr i Pābagān, according to the religious leader, in the form of a ram, accompanies Ardašir for the ideal goal of uniting religion and government. The ram is specifically described as the embodiment of Farrah Kiani and Divine. Now, if a believer considers the ram as a symbol of the god of Victory (Bahram), it is the same belief; there is no objection to one of the mythical incarnations of the god of Victory being described in the form of a ram; Especially that Ardašir, for praise be to the victory  from the god of Victory in different cities of Iran, orders the construction of the fire temple of Bahram. The erection of a fire temple both calms the believers to perform religious worship and shows the popularity and power of the hero-king; or if people promise to accompany the ram and consider it a symbol of wealth- Which is to be inherited after the victory of Ardašir and the foundation of the new government- the storyteller's opinion is provided. God of Victory (Bahram) in the incarnation of a ram- symbol of wealth and power animal husbandry of Iranians- accompanies Ardašir, so that viewers describe that accompaniment; The ram first follows Ardašir, then, he moves next to him and when he rides on Ardašir's horse, anymore, Ardašir's defeat becomes impossible. The storyteller turns fifteen-year-old Ardašir of the story during events with the help and support of angels- which are familiar to the piousness- into a hero, and this hero is responsible for establishing a new government with strong foundations of religion. After the Alexander of Macedonian invaded Iran and destroyed the Zoroastrian religious book, such a government was the wish of the Iranians. However, the Parthians bravely and devotedly liberated Iran from the Seleucids and preserved it for nearly five centuries and their hard defeats overcame the enemies; but with the structure of the tribal rule and religious tolerance, they could not meet the needs of the people. In the meantime, Ardašir's slogan went beyond preserving the country and that was the satisfaction of the beloved gods of the Iranian people and the establishment of a religious government that no one else could harm. For popularity and glory and power, Ardašir kills Karm Xwāday in a ritual way. The biggest antithetic and demon that bothers him and he reconstructs near the believers, that Fereydoun has killed the dragon. And all around Iran, for praise be to the god of Victory, he built the expensive fire temples of Bahram. In the story, people are familiar with the tyranny of Zahak, Afrasiab and Alexander. The storyteller does not explain, by saying their cruelty, he shows Ardašir as Fereydoun. Dualism is characteristic of the Zoroastrian religion, and it is the belief in the existence of two fundamentally opposing forces involved in the work of the world. In Zoroastrianism, life is a battlefield between the good and the bad; truth is law and order, and lie is disorder and chaos. Man has the choice between "truth" and "lie". A man who chooses the truth, the gods accompany him and a man who chooses to lie, devils accompany him. The hero's move is to establish religion; All obstacles are evil. Ardašir's war with the enemies is a battle of good and evil. Wherever the hero wants to be endangered, the gods are embodied, when the daughter of Ahriman (Jahi) as the daughter of Ardavan wants to kill the hero, the god of fire is embodied in the form of a rooster. Because it is only needed that the poison been poured in the cup and not being eat it. Believers are familiar with the controversy between good and evil and the appearance of gods as animals does not diminish the popularity of gods; rather, it increases their power and popularity among the religious. Iranian myths depict the final pattern of believers' daily lives. In the Kār-nāmag we should not look for the real features of the historical Ardašir. We should look for the customs and rituals of the people and the beliefs of the believers who show Ardašir as a paradise model of the hero-king. This story is not made by a storyteller; rather, a group came together to build it; a group of astronomers, geographers, historians, sociologists, storytellers and most importantly, religious jurists tried to make a story in simple and popular language, while entertaining, people's support for the new government is offered. The present article only had the opportunity to address some of the favorite myths of religious people from the point of view of believers and the purpose of the narrator.

Shiraz is one of the centers of handicrafts in Iran with more than 17 groups, 80 active fields and sub-fields handicrafts. Therefore, in 2019, Shiraz was registered as a world handicrafts city by UNESCO. After the group of hand-woven, wooden and wicker handicrafts have the most craftsmen in terms of quantity. Activists in this group are men and women in different age groups.Joak Kari (a special type of inlay), bamboo weaving, Khatam (inlay), matting, woodturning, moharagh-e sagheh-e gandom (burning of wheat stem surface), Peykareh Tarashi (wooden sculpture), wood carving, Kapoo making (type of matting with colored yarn and mat), lattice work, Gereh Chini (special type of lattice work with geometric design), Monabbat-e-Choob (wood carving with small knife), Moaragh-e-Choob (wood mosaic), Moaragh-e-Monabbat (composition of mosaic and wood carving), Monabbat-e-Moshabbak (lattice work with wood carving), joinery work are considered as the fields of wood and wicker arts of Shiraz. The art of Khatam (inlay), wood mosaic and wood carving are the most well-known among the people. Some of the wooden and wicker handicrafts of Shiraz are active in home workshops and others in small workshops with one to three craftsmen. In Shiraz, several families have been active for several generations in the field of Khatam, in other words, learning has been inherited in these families. In other fields of wood art, learning is more acquired and in rare cases inherited.This paper, which is part of a research project, is based on survey research aims to identify, collect, identification of families with a history, and classify wooden and wicker handicraft workshops in Shiraz in terms of geographical distribution, number of workshops, the portion of these workshops in GDP, as well as employed manpower, will answer the following question. What are the craftsmen family relationships, diversity, geographical distribution, the portion of wooden and wicker handicrafts workshops in GDP, and abundance of these workshops by field in Shiraz? The research method in this article is descriptive-analytical and qualitative methods have been used in the analysis section. The required information is provided in the form of graphs and tables. Basic information, definitions and historical topics are obtained from library studies. Other information has been received by field research according to issue by the Deputy of Handicrafts and Traditional Arts of Fars province. Further information has been gathered by snowball method. The data collection tool was observation card and questionnaire form. In some cases, for better results, interviews with experts, interviews with researchers and activists in this field were used. In this way, comprehensive and accurate information can be obtained from the status of existing wooden and wicker handicrafts workshops in Shiraz. The statistical population of this research is Shiraz handicrafts workshops and the sample size is wooden and wicker handicrafts workshops.Since the job of handicrafts is considered as the main source of income for most craftsmen, its role in the circulation of the household economy can be considered directly. However, due to the multiplicity, smallness and dispersion in the city, being home workshop, not having full time job for somebody, not being transparent in the number of financial exchanges in this profession and non-payment of taxes by craftsmen, any statistics in the economic field and its impact on the country's economy is approximate. According to experts, the role of handicrafts in GDP is quite noticeable. On the other hand, since handicrafts rely on domestic resources, it can be said that about 80% of the value of their data (such as labor, raw materials, production tools, etc.) is provided from within the country. It is possible that any increase in production and sales will have a direct effect on gross national income. The findings of this article show that 1360 craftsmen work in 1183 workshops in 16 fields of wood and wicker handicrafts. Among the various fields of wooden and wicker handicrafts, the Khatam has many applicants, followed by mosaics and wood carving, as well as wooden sculpture. Apart from Joak Kari, the fields whose craftsmen are less than ten people, its craftsmen have often migrated to Shiraz from other cities, such as bamboo weaving, Moharagh-e-Sagheh-e-Gandom (burning of wheat stem surface), Kapoo making (type of matting with colored yarn and mat), joinery work. In some cases, craftsmen have mastered another field in addition to their field of specialization, such as wood carving, lattice work, and wood mosaic. Although the number of women in the fields studied is less than men, but their number is also significant. Despite the large number of graduates in the field of handicrafts during the last three decades, their activities in these fields are low and the absence of educated people and designers among these craftsmen has made the designs repetitive. The presence of women was also prominent with a fragile difference compared to men, and it seems that the home-based activities of these workshops, especially the fields that can be produced at home, have been effective in welcoming women. In terms of geographical distribution of wooden and wicker handicrafts group in Shiraz, it can be said that they are scattered in the ten regions of Shiraz. The highest distribution of wooden handicraft workshops is in regions 5, 8, 4, 9 and 3, respectively. Wood workshops that provide wood art infrastructure or provide raw materials are scattered in regions 4 and 5 that located in the area of Adalat Boulevard, Rahmat Boulevard, and the southern ring road of Shiraz. These workshops are also considered as the main centers for furniture production. The wood sculpture and wood carving are more concentrated in areas 5, 4, 3 and 8. Among the wood arts, Khatam and wood mosaic are more scattered throughout the city.

Due to their special connections with humans, tombstones can be a proper manifestation of people’s beliefs and opinions from different areas. Special patterns on some tombstones, some of which are uniquely engraved, and some others are occasionally repeated show the importance of tombstones (the engraved images semiology), and the idea of our ancestors about death. The cemeteries built by the Armenian minority during various periods are a sign of the historical coexistence of Armenians and the Muslim majority. Therefore, this study seeks to evaluate Armenian tombstones in Sang-e Sefid, Aligudarz city and study the relationship between the engravings on tombstones and thoughts and beliefs of Armenians living in Sang-e Sefid in the last 100 years through field and library research (especially primary sources such as Armenian books and articles). The question we are trying to answer is: What kind of symbols and concepts are used in the tombstone engravings in Sang-e Sefid cemeteries? Epigraphs, humans (men and women), winged angels (scarfs, couple and symmetrical), tools (scissors, chains, crosses, and canes), plants (lilies and vases), celestial objects (sun), symbols (Khachkar), animals (eagles) and most importantly, oval and Mihrab-shaped frames were used to organize and arrange inscriptions and patterns with special symbolic meanings. The results indicate that the tombstones of Aligudarz were a constituent of Armenians’ culture and beliefs living in Sang-e Sefid.Building monuments for the dead was rooted in other beliefs as well. Greeks believed that if they did not bury the dead properly, their souls would wander around. In general, tombstones are an amalgam of multiple components including individual identity, community relations, mythological mind, ethnicity, and religion. In other words, when someone passed away, the essence of their existence was manifested in the engravings on their tombstones. Like tombstones of other regions in Iran, the tombstones of Sang-e Sefid are engraved with historical, cultural, social, and religious concepts of the region.  It is worth noticing that human and plant engravings are almost always together which indicates the popular culture, beliefs, and tradition of that time. The tradition of Armenians living in Sang-e Sefid was rooted in Christian-European culture. Similar to other migrants, they brought their native culture to the target land.This study used a descriptive-analytic approach, and the data were collected using field and library research (especially primary sources such as Armenian books and articles). The sources for field research were direct observation, photography, and interviewing Armenians living in Iran and familiar with the engravings. For the library research, primary Armenian sources, especially a quarterly magazine published by Iranian-Armenians since 1998 was studied. Fifteen tombstones in the Armenian cemetery in Sang-e Sefid were introduced, and their engravings were compared with the data collected using the methods.Most of the tombstones found in this cemetery were horizontal while some were headstones. All the graves were in the east-west direction in the shape of boxes and boulders. The box-shaped tombstones were often bigger and the tombstones were smaller and filled with engravings.The patterns were in the form of engravings or reliefs. For reliefs, the patterns were carved out to highlight the patterns. This method was time-consuming, very delicate, and it was mostly adopted for the main patterns (humans, plants, animals, etc.). For the engravings, the patterns were engraved on the tombstone. It was mostly used for frames, writings, or small patterns.Tombstones are generally categorized into three groups.Initial or framing patterns: Frames are on the top of the tombstone. On the bottom, delicate Mihrab or sigmoid-shaped lines are drawn surrounding the stone.Middle patterns: The main patterns are in the middle including humans, plants, birds, and geometrical shapes.Finishing patterns: These patterns include Armenian script (name of the deceased, seeking forgiveness, and date of death)The local culture has a major influence on the engravings of the tombstones. From an anthropological point of view, engraved motifs are very important. In the Sang-e Sefid cemetery, there are 9 major motifs including plants, animals, geometrical shapes, sun, humans, angels, tools, epigraphs, and framings.Fifteen tombstones in the Sang-e Sefid cemetery were introduced and evaluated, and their engravings were assessed in detail. Various motifs of tombstones in the region indicated that the Armenians pay special attention to preserving the burial rites and cherishing the memory of their loved ones, and used these symbolic and geometrical engravings to highlight this fact. These patterns are inspired by the beliefs and ideas of the people living in the region, and they include human, plant, geometrical shape, animal, symbolical and even framing motifs. The symbolical aspect of these motifs is more dominant than the decorative one. This symbolical aspect is most pronounced in angel, sun, and cross motifs. Since the motifs were engraved with the transcendental world in mind, concepts such as guidance for the dead, protection and guardianship, symbol and manifestation of enlightenment, etc. come to mind. Religious motifs such as the cross, the altar of angels decorated with flowers, and the clothing are representative of the deceased’s faith, beliefs, and honesty. Rather than depicting the religious character of the deceased, such religious motifs are remnants of the ancient religious mindset of their ancestors in Armenia, many of which are rooted in the mythological culture of the Armenian people. The interesting thing about the tombstones is the motif of the cross and people with religious coverings, which seem to indicate that most of the people buried in this cemetery are Armenians who were followers of Mithraism.

Caricature is one of the most important artistic methods in expressing political and social criticism and protest in the language of satire and humor. Political cartoons became very popular in the July Revolution (1830) and during the reign of King Louis-Philippe of France due to his corruption and inefficiency, as well as pressure and opposition to freedom of expression and the publication of critical newspapers. The caricaturists of this period protested against the actions of the king and the courtiers by the leadership of Charles Philipon and with publishing satirical cartoons. The King's representation became a pear as an artistic movement and a symbol of royal corruption. The purpose of this article is to examine the Pear Art Movement in French cartoons and periodicals during the reign of Louis-Philippe.The question is that what are the reasons for the pear movement during the reign of Louis-Philippe? What factors led to the popularity of these cartoons in the French society of that day? Political pressures on artists and critics forced cartoonists to use metaphors and allegories; The Louis-Philippe pear-shaped face also contributed greatly to this symbolism. At the same time, pear was naive in the eyes of the public. This article is descriptive and somewhat analytical. The July Revolution was the second French Revolution since the First Revolution (1789). Following this event, Louis Philip I, at the head of the new monarchy known as the "July Kingdom", succeeded the second period of the restoration of the monarchy and became king. This revolution took place over three days -Tuesday 27, Wednesday 28 and Thursday 29 July 1830-and became known as the "Three glorious Days".Louis Philippe failed to live up to his promise to uphold the constitution and the constitutional monarchy and freedom of expression (which was the product of the First Revolution and the July Revolution). He was plagued by corruption, courtiers, and social and political problems caused by his style of governing. Intense and widespread pressures on the free press, critical writers and artists increased day by day and angered them. Cartoonists also began to ridicule images, sometimes with short texts. One of the most important of these cartoonists to oppose Louis and his courtiers was Charles Philipon (1800-1861), who sparked a wave of protests, following in the footsteps of Louis-Philippe in the form of a pear. It aroused itself and sparked a protest movement that could be referred to as the "Pear Movement."Philipon assembled a group of skilled artists who worked mostly for the two publications, and through them attacked the king and the system of government with increasing violence. La Caricature made an unprecedented outcry against Louis Philippe and was arrested more than a dozen times. Louis-Philippe's cruel portrayal of a pear-which he found very unpleasant-was begun by Charles Philipon in 1831. As a defense, in the court that accused him of violating the king's status, he drew figures that showed how the king's head rotates in a process of transformation and in several steps, approaching in the shape of a pear. This work was one of the most influential political physiognomic cartoons depicting the character of the king from the Philipon point of view. From then on, the king was constantly portrayed in French liberal magazines as a pear and then just like the fruit itself. The role of pear was used by caricaturists and cartoonists of that time, and on top of all that, the latter benefited greatly from the role of pear. Daumier was preparing pear-shaped cartoon designs for lithography at a time when he was in prison with Philipon for Gargantua (another Louis-Philippe caricature).Daumier drew the physiognomic designs of Louis-Philippe, imitating and imitating Philipon. The plan, made in the courtroom in 1831, was published three years later, in 1834, in the journal Le Charivari. The pear shape never gave up on the monarchy and became a well-known symbol of the repressive government of the French Republicans and Liberals. The corruption of the reign of Louis Philippe and his associates is again depicted in the cartoon of Auguste Bouquet, using pears, the king's relatives and supporters, like pears, are plundering the nation's wealth and budget, and their corruption is causing the fruit to rot and, as a result, France to disintegrate. This was a clear and protesting statement of the situation in France, presented by Auguste Bouquet.Undoubtedly, the most famous cartoon of the physiognomy of a pear is a cartoon entitled "Past, Present, Future" by Honoré Daumier, which depicts the pear head of Louis Philippe in a three-dimensional manner, reminiscent of the tangled hair above his head. In a lithographic cartoon, Daumier ridiculed conservative members of the House of Legislatives-all of who are recognizable by their contemporaries-for their arrogance and corruption, and portrayed them as bloated and naughty. The Legislative Belly (Le Ventre Legislatif), marks the culmination of the dramatic power of the collection of political portraits of the July monarchy, and with its mastery of grading from black to white, it is one of the masterpieces of the Second Lithography. For each of the characters he has drawn in this cartoon, Daumier has already made a number of cartoons (with a physiognomic point of view), each of which has its own concept and subject of satire and criticism. Daumier also depicts the Cariophysiognomic figures of the other statesmen present at the legislature's belly meeting, according to the responsibilities, behaviors and physiques of their faces. The Grimaces collection, with its physiognomic cartoon faces depicted by Louis Leopold Boyle (1745-1845) from 1823 to 1828, undoubtedly influenced Daumier to design the cartoon of the 1831 masks, which is one of the second physiognomic masterpieces, in which it shows the faces of 15 people by showing their inner characters.In France, censorship of images was always more severe than censorship of text, because images were thought to be more attractive to the lower classes of society, whose literacy levels were limited. During the re-establishment of the Bourbons, or the return of the Bourbons to the French monarchy, artists created a language full of symbols and metaphors to escape censorship. This led cartoonists to ridicule Louis-Philippe politically and critically in the periodicals of the period, especially La Caricature and Le Charivari. Grandville and Forest published the cartoon "Resurrection of Censorship," a satirical political work, under intense new censorship and published it in La Caricature to protest press censorship. The use of pear characters Due to the censorship and punishments that were intended for cartoonists and their publishing newspapers, it became a real pear that contained symbols of the characters desired by the artist. Thus, it was a way to escape punishment and deny the issue. One of the most significant of these caricatures is a cartoon entitled "Acceptance," which was published as a purely political satire by Grandville and Forest on November 15, 1832, in La Caricature, depicting court figures in the form of pears. Complete depict with specific symbols. Strict censorship necessitated the use of symbols and metaphors: the shape of Louis-Philippe's head was physiognomically similar to a pear, so in the beginning it was a pear that had the features of Louis's face; but then, by announcing the punishment for attributing it to the king, it turned into a whole pear. At the end of this physiognomic transformation of the face, the pear itself had become a symbol of Louis Philippe, a perfectly metaphorical and understandable expression for the people and the libertarians. The process of these artistic protests and the use of pears by a significant number of cartoonists created a movement that can be called the "Pear Movement". These publications were distributed to a good level of the society, and the publication of pear cartoons caused them to be depicted everywhere, and the pear shape was painted on the walls of Paris by people and even children for a period. The "Pear Movement" also had a significant impact on the subsequent socio-political developments in France.

One of the essential aspects of painting from various times is a visual similarity in the use of forms, pure colors, and symbolic motifs, in addition to common subjects. Color, in particular, is one of the most essential and notable characteristics of painting, and it is a key ability for inquiry and study. Chromatography theories allude to people's profound understanding of colors and sensory experiences, and they give a useful analytical instrument for studying the impacts. One of these points of view is Johannes Eaton's. The two visual aspects of contrast, width, and complementarity may be related to the subjects of the works in the drawings using this viewpoint. The purpose of this research is to find out how Kamaluddin Behzad used complementary and expanding contrast to create an imaginative image of the "romantic-mystical" topic. This study used a descriptive-analytical approach to address this question, gathering information and data in a library setting, and concluded that Johannes Eaten's theory of contrast, breadth, and color complementation might be applied to Kamaluddin Behzad's paintings, and it conveys to the audience the unique and vital aspects of these works. Each color portion in these paintings depicts the occurrence of distinctive and independent occurrences, and complementary contrast and width are employed to create different color spaces that are two-dimensional and have depth. The artist has heightened the expressive, emotional, and creative characteristics of colors by using these visual compositions.Hue theory is the product of the artist's sensory experience of colors in all artistic movements, including Iranian painting, and each color can include certain themes. Shapes and colors in the realm of painting are not what they appear to be in tangible terms. They rely on the transcendental realm, which is taken from Eastern thought, and the painter attempts to show such a world. This notion could be depicted on a two-dimensional paper surface by a Herat school painter. In each period, the paintings were slightly different in terms of the placement of statues, objects, elements, the emptiness of the space, and its colors and qualities, and in some cases, these differences caused change and progress in that period. Herat school is more developed and mature in this period, and the use of form and color symmetry in the works of this period is reduced. A specific form of realism may be noticed in bodies and even in color, in addition to landscapes. Most of the Herat school's works feature light hues, the brightest of which is gold. The school's distinguishing characteristics include brilliance, color maturity, color range, new color combinations, and the development of new topics, among others, which, with the passage of time and the presence of Kamaluddin Behzad, prepare the way for major changes in the art of painting. Europeans have been the primary source of knowledge about Iranian painting in the contemporary age. Thus, a deeper understanding of contemporary Iranian painting can be gained by looking at how the Iranian artist has used color and created colorful spaces in his works, as well as how the Iranian artist has achieved an imaginative display of visual qualities of colors (contrast, breadth, and complementarity). The present study aims to consider if complementary contrast and width (according to Eaton's theory) are present in Kamaluddin Behzad's paintings as a key visual preparation. To do this, this research aims to address the following question: how did Kamaluddin Behzad combine complementary contrast and expansive contrast to create an imaginative image of the "romantic-mystical" theme? For this reason, the position of color in Iranian painting is described first, followed by a study of Kamaluddin Behzad's works, which have been attributed to him based on written research by other researchers (Abdolmajid Hosseini Rad, 2006 and Rouin Pakbaz, 2004 and Mousavi Lor, 2007 and Azhand, 2008). The approach of employing contrast, breadth, and complementarity is discussed in these publications.