مجله جلوه هنر
سال پانزدهم شماره 1 (بهار 1402)

The concepts of life and death are amongst common principles in  all religions and civilizations. Consequently, their related iconography is is present in the tomb carvings.. Tombstones are a testament to people's view of death and the afterlife, where bodies are left to one of the four elements of wind, water, fire and earth to be purified. Tombs are perhaps the beginning of the use of stone in burial rituals, which became the main material because of their longevity and protection of the body and to overcome the fear of ghosts, an eternal resting place for the deceased.The sacredness and sanctity for the eternal resting place for the deceased, in all that religions, has always motivated the sculptors to carve the tombstones as a work of art showcasing all kinds of motifs and inscriptions. With the advent of Islam in Iran, it became customary for Muslims to place the name and seal of the deceased on their graves, and with the presence of Shia elements and the migration of Armenians to Iran during the Safavid period, the tombstones of Muslims and Armenians were decorated with various motifs (vegetal, geometric, animal, angelic, human, object) and different types of inscriptions. Due to the importance of burial as one of the most important human rituals, and with the growth and expansion of the urban fabric of Isfahan as one of the important centers of government, separate cemeteries were established in many areas of this city. Among them, the Takht-e-Foulad and the Jolfa Armenian cemetery in Isfahan, with their historical antiquity and artistic value, tell the story of the Muslim and Armenian views on the beliefs of life and death, the concept of resurrection and immortality in Christianity and Islam. One of the common decorations in these tombs is the occupation and social status of the deceased during their lifetime, which is manifested in the form of associated tools and instruments, or in the form of a human figure. The communication and interaction of Muslims and Armenians, the closeness of monotheistic religions and their common life experience in Isfahan caused many artistic commonalities over several centuries, which play an important role in recognizing culture, art and the worldview of the concept of life and death in a diverse society.The present research is qualitative in terms of its purpose, and is done by descriptive-analytical method. Data collection was performed based on field research and library studies. Hundreds of tombstones were photographed by the authors within a few months from Jolfa Mausoleum and Takht-e-Foulad in Isfahan, and the scope of this research includes all Armenian tombs and Takht-e-Foulad in the several acres of these two mausoleums. An attempt was made to comprehensively evaluate and analyze the tomstones by considering different periods from Safavid to Pahlavi, with the diversity of samples of the statistical population. Based on the selective sampling of Takht-e-Foulad and Armenians, 50 tombstones were selected from each and a total of 100 tombstones were studied, which had the largest amount of information on human occupations and could be classified, and analyzed accoedingly. In this research, this question is answered: What is the relationship between human motifs and occupational instruments in the Armenian gravestones and Takhte-e-foulad tomstones, taking into account the basic principles of Islamic and Christian art?The dominant discourse in Christian art insists on perceiving the supreme essence, which is the incarnation of the supreme imperceptible, that is, God, in a human form and the body of Christ, in contrast to which the discourse of Islam was formed on the basis of monotheism. In the text of religion (Qur'an), there is no document based on the opposition of imagery, and perhaps the presence of some hadiths and comments based on the prohibition of imagery in some religious sciences such as jurisprudence has caused this misinterpretation. The cjristian arts rely heavily on iconography, and the relationship between the believer and God in this religion is based on incarnation; while in Islam, it is  language either spoken or written that creates the connection. As a result, the absence of illustrations in Islam, unlike Christianity, is not because of prohibition, just as the absence of calligraphy and inscriptions in Christianity and its churches should not be interpreted as the opposition of that religion to the use of language;; a misconception that has wrongly introduced Islam as an iconoclastic religion. An important point to keep in mind is that the image in Islam, from the beginning of its appearance, basically did not find an iconic position and did not find a ritual function that would cause iconoclasm to happen like what happened in Christianity. In fact, Islamic art did not contain iconography, because the art forms in the society it originated from, did not contain iconography. One of the most important and fundamental teachings of Christianity is the Incarnation, according to which the Creator expresses and reveals Himself in the form of an incarnated human beingwith absolute likeness.Narratives such as Jacob wrestling with God had a full presence in the Old Testament; and according to these narrations, at the beginning of the Gospel of John, the incarnation became one of the pillars of the Christian principles. In addition to the Jewish foundations, the presence of Roman civilization was also completely incarnational and among the influencial factors. Unlike Christianity, whose centrality is influenced by the character of the Prophet, Islam does not place the centrality on the Prophet, but on Allah, and the Prophet does not have a divine rank, and Allah is not incarnated, and lowers the meaning, not the form. The lack of a physical incarnation of the divine in the Mount Hira does not establish an absolute prohibitiopn of the image. The iconoclasm of Islamic art does not mean the negation of any facetization in the form of anti-facetism. Islam has no conflict with motifs and images as long as the images do not create illusions of his succession and idolatry. The abstract and allegorical language and expression of the motifs and symbols of Islamic tombstones, such as Takht-e-Foulad, is rooted in this principle and goes back to its sanctity, not to the prohibition of images. The small number of human images on the tombstones of Takht-e-Foulad Muslims, especially the absence of women's occupations (there are no cases of women's occupation), unlike what happens in the Jolfa cemetery with the abundance of images of women and men, not to the text of religion, which is related to the inference.The religious object of Islam is speech and calligraphy, which is rightly manifested in the stone carvings of Muslim tombstones, with an obvious preference over human motifs. And as evident in Armenian tombs, according to Christian iconography, it is the cross or the Khachkar that has the highest rate of appearance, obviously implying the reverence of this Icon amongst Armenian Christians.   The carved drawings of the gravestones of Takht-e-Foulad and the Armenians of Jolfa, reflect the fundamentals of art and worldview of the two religions, Islam and Christianity, and are indebted to either’s artistic heritage. The results show that the occupations in the tombs of Jolfa cemetery are mainly the images of men and women doing their work and profession in the form of "iconography", but in most of the tombs of Takht-e-Foulad, with the approach of "iconoclasm", only the tools and instruments of occupations are manifested. Among the religious minorities of Iran, Armenian Christians were considered successful merchants, artisans and artists, and were supported by kings in some eras and had better living conditions, which is well reflected in their tombstones. The Iranian and Armenian traditionalist artists act in harmony with their ethnic and religious codes and principles. More than anything else, the carvings of tombstones are based on religious beliefs and show Christian iconography, and Islamic iconoclasm and their attitude towards life and death and the afterlife. As a result, the carvings of occupations in the Armenian tombs of Jolfa are mostly in the form of motifs of women and men and the narrator of the deceased's profession, and in Takht-e-Foulad cemetery, the occupations are implied mainly in the form of pictograms of tools and implements of occupations, which express the personal characteristics and status of the deceased, individually or combined with other motifs (plants , animals, angels, geometry). Also, despite their fundamental religious differences, the motifs of the tombs of Takht-e-Foulad and Jolfa have many similarities in form and content, which show the interactions and influences of Muslims and Armenians on each other. It cannot be definitely said that Iranian and Islamic culture influenced Armenians more in the formation of these stones, or that they were the heritage of Armenian sculptors. What is significant, is the influence and similarities of religions and their ethnic and cultural characteristics, along with the fundamental differences in the foundations of Islamic and Christian art.

AbstractHandicrafts as the objective manifestation of popular functional arts with their own original designs have always held a special place as an important factor in the economy of Iran. Given its elevated status as the second factor in GNP growth, extensive support and guidance policies have been implemented for its development with a range of significant effects. It can be stated that values in arts and culture, together with high value-added and power to earn foreign currency, have transformed handicrafts into ideal products for exports.The quality of Iranian handicrafts is entirely influenced by its natural and human geography, and anthropological characteristics. This takes on importance because adopting sociocultural approaches to designing and producing handicrafts and examining the intervention of these products in the context of daily life in any natural and human geography can pave the way for sustainable attitudes towards this industry. As such, the arts and crafts can act as components in examining and interpreting their climatic and geographical regions, beliefs, and local customs. Therefore, maintaining local production, craft production methods, as well as form and performance analysis to increase their survival rate and feasibility for exports are vital requirements for the arts and crafts of all regions.Light and soft, and at times coarse and rough, wicker weaves made of natural plant fibers have been used for centuries. Gilan Province, in northern Iran, is one region which has benefitted from this. Regretfully, vulnerability to the extensively humid climate of the northern regions of Iran has meant that few valid documents have remained behind from its nascent days and exploitation. But according to the written sources of the past few decades, it can be said that Mat- weaving in Gilan Province has enjoyed considerable fame and quality. It was produced mainly in the cities of Rasht and Anzali where marsh plants constitute the main raw material for Mat- weaving in this region.Mat- weaving is also the most common handicraft of Hormozgan Province in southern Iran, because palm leaves are also another raw material for this craft and found in abundance in this region. The towns of Minab, Bashagard, and Bandar Lengeh and its outskirts are important regions for mat weaving, which is mainly carried out by women and girls.Therefore, Mat- weaving in two provinces on waterfronts - Gilan and Hormozgan - is one of the oldest and most important handicrafts which are very popular in these regions due to unlimited access to raw materials, providing the basis for a comparative study. This research aims to recognize, analyze, and match the qualities of Mat- weaving in these two regions by considering their natural and human geographies. By paying attention to the local similarities and differences and climatic aspects which have given rise to diverse production methods, forms, and functions of these handicrafts, one may endeavor to find sustainable solutions to safeguard and maintain their continuity and promote exports. Based on this and to evaluate and analyze the background of the Mat- weaving arts and crafts taking shape in Gilan and Hormozgan provinces against the backdrop of their natural and human geography and the said anthropological characteristics, the present research endeavors to answer the question of: What is the quality of Mat- weaving in Gilan and Hormozgan provinces and its related components such as preparation of raw materials, tools, production methods, popular patterns, range of products, and innovations in production?This is a descriptive analytical research. The library method was used for data collection and field interviews were conducted with local producers to assess their products. Data were subsequently compiled in the descriptive-analytical method so that the local geography, human life, and Mat- weaving arts and crafts of Gilan and Hormozgan provinces were initially introduced. In the next stage, research findings were presented by matching the dimensions of this craft in both provinces. These include: production materials, preparation of raw materials, dominant production method, tools used to prepare the raw materials, tools used for weaving, prominent productions, popular patterns, and production innovation.The results suggest that the rawest materials used in Hormozgan Provinces are “Pish”, “Pangash”, “Sis”, and “Kertak”. The rawest materials used in Gilan Province are “Sub”, “Li”, “Koler”, and “Kulus”. The main stages for preparing raw materials include pruning, drying, and soaking in Hormozgan Province, and harvesting, drying, and soaking in Gilan Province. Tools used in Hormozgan Province to prepare the raw materials include sickles, range of knives, saws, planes, pliers, scissors, hooks, awls, beater combs, and oil rocks. Tools used in Gilan Province are mainly sickles, knives, files, awls, scissors, and hooks. In both provinces, weaving is carried out by hand using hooks. In Gilan Province, mats are woven on wooden looms using wooden mat weaver’s combs, “Katal”, and knives. Outstanding Mat- weaving in Hormozgan Province includes “kanduk”, “Takel”, “Sop”, “Tavizeh”, “Savas”, Jar Lids and Mat. Gilan Province produces an array of baskets, hampers, mats, screens, and other similar items.The motifs of woven mat in Gilan and Hormozgan provinces are affected by their natural and social geography, but in Gilan province, the motifs of woven mat are evident in products that are woven using the warp and weft method. However, the common motifs of the woven mat of Hormozgan province can be distinguished depending on whether they are woven in a spiral way or in a warp. In both Gilan and Hormozgan provinces, innovations in Mat- weaving are classified as “Mat- weaving products with modern functions using traditional weaving methods”, “Mat- weaving products with traditional functions and new weaving methods”, and “Mat- weaving products with modern functions and weaving methods”.The results of this research are consistent with the direct effects of climatic and cultural factors on the continuation and disappearance of the arts and crafts of both regions, changes in their form and content, innovations, and product variety. As mentioned above, climate is an important factor contributing to the production of arts and crafts in every region. The two important natural indicators shared by both provinces in this study include their location on the sea and the dominance of a mountainous topography. But we witness different climatic conditions in these regions due to different geographical latitudes, regional factors, and external atmospheric systems. These differences create raw materials with different physical and chemical characteristics.Also, if we consider culture to be a system of shared values, beliefs, and customs in a community through which people give meaning to their world and use it as a means of finding identity, then culture must be considered as another factor affecting the formation of the arts and crafts and all the relevant issues in these two regions.Hence, to create a better landscape for the comparative study of the ancient Mat- weaving arts and crafts of the said provinces in the present research, components such as raw materials, tools and methods, range of products, and design and production innovations in each province (Gilan & Hormozgan) have been studied to reveal how each of these components are dealt with in their respective climatic-social-cultural contexts and the sociocultural approaches taken in designing and producing handicrafts by the designers, while creating sustainable attitudes in the design and production of handicrafts.The results of this study show the direct influence of natural and human geographies and anthropological characteristics on the continuity, disappearance, changes in form and content, innovations, and product variety of the arts and crafts in both regions. Future research can concentrate on the study of the volume of other arts and crafts shared by Hormozgan and Gilan provinces, such as pottery, traditional embroidery, jewelry, maritime crafts, design and production of wooden boats, production of fishing tools, etc., by taking into consideration the climatic conditions and sociocultural backgrounds of the said two provinces.

One of the types of carpets produced in the Safavid era is niche carpets. What makes these carpets different from other types of rugs is the presence of many texts in a small handwoven rug. The weaving of this typeo of carpets continued in the later periods, especially in the 19th century (AD), even more so in Herekeh (Turkey). Nevertheless, there are examples of these carpets in Qajar era in Iran, whose general structure is equal to the carpets of the Safavid era.Niche carpets of the Safavid era in the 19th century are considered as a precursor to other styles of carpets in Iran and Herekeh. Since the evolution of carpet design cannot be possible without a history, Safavid era rugs’ influence on the design and style of later era carpets cannot go unnoticed, therefore, the relation between these texts is not considered co-present, but Derivation.It seems that in these derivations, the style is the same but the themes are different,therefore subject and thematic transformations are apparent. The verbal text in most of the Safavid carpets is taken from Quranic verses, but the verbal text in the carpet in the Dafineh Museum from the Qajar era mostly includes lyrical and didactic poems. This carpet is very similar in structure and appearance to the Safavid era carpets. It also consists of a wide margin, two narrow margins around and four inscriptions in a small frame around the writings. This rug contains several colored pieces in the Corner part, and the strip around the niche is also decorated with inscriptions. Also, the textual drsigns in this carpet are mostly taken from the poems of Hafez and Saadi; while the niche carpet of the Safavid era is full of Quranic verses and hadiths. The questions that arise re as follows: 1. Why was the carpet of Dafineh Museum influenced by the structure of the carpets of the 16th century? 2. What is the relationship between the carpet of Dafineh Museum and previous samples and how can this relationship be explained? Therefore, since the relationship between the two existing texts is a Derivation, this research attempts to analyze the images using the trans textuality approach and based on the type of hyper textuality. The purpose of this research is to analyze the textual imagery of the carpet of Dafineh Museum by relying on the hyper textuality of Genet, and considering that this carpet is a derivation of the carpets of the Safavid era. In order to reach a suitable answer by using the hyper textuality approach and descriptive and analytical methods, the conclusion that was reached was that  the Derivation in the overall shape of the carpet is a type of Imitation and pastiche, but the Derivation in the textual elements is of the type of transformation and transposition.According to this contradiction, it can be said that the transformation in hyper textuality is more emphasized on the theme, because these texts express a different theme of conduct, survival and destruction in the name of God, and criticize the state of the society during the era and a reminder of the peace and tranquility during the Safavid period.This research is descriptive-analytical based on its modality and analyzes two niche rugs with the multi-textual method. Therefore, this study can be considered a comparative study. The research is time-oriented;comparing two works from the Safavid and Qajar era. This study is not focused on the similarities and differences of the two works, but on the influence of one text as a pretext on another text as a hyper textuality. What is important in this comparison is the relationship between the texts. This research is qualitative and fundamental in terms of its purpose; due to its analysis of the relationship between two rugs based on the poly textual method.The hyper textual example is the niche carpet of the Dafineh Museum in the Qajar era and the pre-text sample is the niche carpet from the Safavid era. Gérard Genette believes that there is no text that does not evoke another text (Genette,1982A:18).Therefore, in "Trans textuality", he expresses the relationship of one text with other texts. From Genette's point of view, Trans textuality has five types; which includes intertextuality, super textuality, Para textuality, met textuality, hyper textuality (Namvarmotlagh, 2013: 139). In the meantime, Genette's hyper textuality has taken a large volume of his research. Also, due to the fact that the relationship between two texts examined in this research is of a derivative nature, the hyper textuality in the samples is examined.From Genette's point of view, hyper textuality, is re-reading of a pre-text, that is, writing new content and reading pre-text creates a new text (Genette, 1987:5). The pre-text is the first text which is considered as a source of inspiration. Hyper textuality is also the second text derived from the pretext. Genette considers two big categories of similitude (imitation) and transformation (change) for most of the text.Similarity or imitation: In this regard, the author's goal and intention is to preserve the original text in new conditions.2- Transformation or transposition: "In transformation, hyper textuality is created by the change and transformation of the pre-textuality" (Namvarmotlagh, 2008: 96).Also, Genette considers three main conditions for hyper-textuality: the textuality of the subject, subject containing two or more texts, and an established and apparent relation between the pre-text and the hyper-text (Namvarmotlagh, 2013: 141). After dividing hyper textuality into Imitation and transformation, she divides them into six main types: pastiche, charge, forgery, parody, travestissement, and transposition.According to the passage, if the carpet is examined as a whole, the overall style of the Dafineh Museum carpet is the same as the niche carpet, and its style can be considered imitation, and, it can be classified under pastiche. However, if the textual imagery of the carpet of the Dafineh Museum are compared with other carpets, a change in style can be observed. Because there are Arabic verses or narrations in the beginning of the text, but most of its text is devoted to lyrical and didactic poetry. Also, the theme in the first carpet conveys a kind of pilgrimage and ascension, and each verbal text in the margins specifies a path of pilgrimage. But in Hyper textuality of the beginning of the Border or the first margin, refers to the bad state of present and the reminiscence of the past, which is a repetitive theme throughout the work. Considering that the carpet of the Dafineh Museum is a derivation of the Safavid carpet and referring to the name of Shah Abbas in a place where in the past there were important zikrs such as Tasbihat-Arbaeh, it seems that parody and transformation prevail here, because the situation is expressed with bitter humor. Therefore, it seems that the weaver tried to represent the Safavid era artistically by using the structure of Safavid rugs and imitating the general style. The weaver has tried to recreate a work from that era by imitating the style, but with a twist in the texts with a change and transformation of the theme, he refers to the unfavorable conditions of the Qajar era and wishes to return to the period of Shah Abbas. Therefore, in all the margins, he uses verses that express this matter in the best way. Since the carpet was woven in the Qajar period, criticism of the status quo and complaints about the current period, that is, complaints about the Qajar period, and considering the name of Shah Abbas and references to him in other texts of the Qajar period, it is implied that his rule and period was considered ideal for the artists.According to Genette's statements, there is no text without a pretext and the texts influence each other. Therefore, one of the ways to read the carpet of the Dafineh Museum is to study the pre-text (text A) and its connection with text (B). Using this approach, at first glance by just considering the appearance, it looks like a prayer rug, because the style of both is the same, and the similarity can be seen in the creation of the new text. However, by deeply scrutinizing the written elements and examining the relationship between them, unlike the general style, we can see a lack of clarity in the written text. This transformation has more of a whimsical element, also in this transformation we can see changes in the shape and theme of the carpet. The most important change in the appearance of the verbal text is the removal of the inscription under the forehead of the niche. Since in text A, the final collection takes place under the forehead of the niche, therefore, there is no need for such a text to be present in the carpet of the Dafineh Museum, which complains about the current situation. Also, since the structure has been preserved, it can be reminiscent of a text from the Safavid period. The main change in the content of the verbal text is from verses to poems, which does not refer to fate and death, but to the oppression of the times and the desire to return to the time of Shah Abbas, that is, the time in which the pretext matter was woven.

Death is a vital necessity and an undeniable phenomenon. Death is a concept in contrast with life and inevitable. Confrontation with death has a lifespan as old as humanity itself. Humanity's constant confrontation with death has made man make peace with its inevitability. Therefore, the desire to know more about the phenomenon of death has been one of human’s oldest pastimes. The way of dealing with this process has different patterns in different cultures and traditions. But since mankind have always been looking for a way to commend the deceased, monuments and tombs have been one of the most obvious ways of showing and symbolizing the deceased person, and tombstones are important in this process. The construction of tombs has long been important for honoring the status of the dead, so that in the ancient times of Iran we come across tombs and graves that show us the traditions of the past regarding the deceased. After Islam, according to the Islamic tradition, the deceased is buried in the soil during a ceremony. In line with historical eras, tombs were structurally influenced and conformed to the various cultural factors of each era and changes in rituals and beliefs.In Islamic Iran, tomb buildings became prevalent from the 4th century A.H. and the construction of tombs for important people became popular and gradually widespread, and as evidenced by history, since then the tombs of the elders and important figures always continued to be significant during following eras. Tombs are a place to display history, art, culture and even philosophy and life style of the people of a society. The common feature of tombs and mausoleums, either for important figures or ordinary people, is the existence of a tombstone that is designed with special specifications. By observing the graves and studying them and the concepts, themes and motifs of their carvings, beliefs, history of the people of a region, and even their art can be understood. Inscriptions, names, decorations and forms are the factors that give life to the stone, and become guides and take us somewhere in-between existence and non-existence; where there is no name, but only commemoration. Patterns that are a testament to the art history of Iranian civilization and their main source are mystical in nature.The history of using tombstones in Iran dates back to Islam. Although there is no sign and proof of the onset of placing the stone on the grave of the deceased, it can be said that the way of burial and marking the grave (stone) after forty days in Shia jurisprudence can be the beginning of this tradition. By the passage of time the tombstones, like other works of the Islamic period, were decorated by symbols that implied many characteristics, ranging from the introduction of the deceased to the historical period and identity signs. The application of a boxed tombstones on the grave of the deceased does not have a precise and specific date, but their first well known examples can be found in the Timurid period. Tombstones in various types and special styles, which are rooted in the religious foundations of the Islamic periods, are used in all cemeteries and are considered an important feature of the cemetery. Engraved motifs in the Islamic period can be seen in various parts of religious texts, one example of which is tombstones engraved with plant themes, ethnic beliefs, pure sculptural forms and inscriptions with various forms of calligraphy.Since far past, ever since the burial of the holy body of the 8th Imam of Shiites, Imam Reza’s (pbuh) holy shrine has been the focus of attention of various groups of people, and many people, in their wills, requested to be buried next to the shrine of this noble Imam. Also with the development of the Holy Shrine for the welfare of pilgrims and the growing trend of urbanization, a number of tombstones around the Holy Shrine were transferred to the Astan Quds Razavi Museum. Astan Quds Razavi has a great treasure of art works, many of which have not yet been introduced to researchers. The tombstones preserved in this large collection are among the works that are considered significant, due to the reading of their themes and the study of their motifs. This research intends to study the symbolic concepts of this type of tombstones with various decorations and examine their form and content. The tombstones of the Astan Quds Razavi Museum include the Timurid and Safavid periods. About 15 tombstones are on display in this museum. In this research, 7 samples of tombstones from the tombs of Mahfouz in Astan Quds Razavi Museum have been studied. Two of them have recently been found in the excavations of the Holy Shrine of Razavi and are introduced for the first time in this study. They belong to Khanka Bibi, the daughter of Amir Afzaluddin Mohammad Al Mousavi and Goharshad Khatun, the daughter of Sultan Farrokh Yasar.The purpose of this research is to study the structure, inscriptions and motifs carved on the tombstones. The question of this research is what concepts do the inscriptions and decorative motifs of the box tombstones of Astan Quds Razavi Museum refer to?The research method is based on analytical and descriptive method, and data collection is conducted via field studies and documents and library resources in parallel. The statistical population of the research includes 7 examples of tombstones in Astan Quds Razavi Museum, which have the maximum amount of information and the minimum percentage of degradation.The results of the research show that the decorations of the studied tombstones were decorated with inscriptions, geometric designs, Mihrabi and Moqransi motifs with carvings of plant foliage such as lotus flower and Eslimi designs. The texts engraved on the tombstones include verses of the Quran, prayers, names of God, poems, and also the details of the deceased, which can be seen on the body of the tombstone. What can be said concerning the selected tombstones is that two types of inscriptions and motifs can be detected on them. In addition to introducing the deceased with prayers, the verses of the Quran and the names of the Innocents, the inscriptions reflect the whole view of the religious beliefs of the people of that era, who fully understood the relationship between the form and the meaning of the motifs. Especially mentioning the name of Hazrat Ali due to the recognition of the Shia as the official religion of Iran during the Safavid era is one of the noteworthy cases. These inscriptions are engraved on the top most part, body and the margins of the tombstone. The type of writing style in the inscriptions is of significan importance in the work of artists on tombstones. In the selected examples, the Kufic script of Banai, Naskh, and Tholut have been used. In transforming the shape of tombstones from cradle to boxed, the altar-shaped design at the top of the box is quite clear a replacement for the upper prominent part of the cradle tombstone. The design of the altar contains decorations such as inscriptions and motifs. In connection with the motifs, the use of geometric, Eslimi and Moqrans motifs is prominent. Geometric motifs are used along with plant motifs and inscriptions, among which circle is one of the most widely used shapes. These motifs are formed by regular repetition and reproduction of a pattern in all directions of the shape to fill the entire surface and the empty space between the shapes. These geometric motifs can also be seen in the form of decorative flowers, the varieties of which are four-petal, eight-petal, and lotus flowers. Sometimes these flowers are centrally located in the upper frame, or they connect a series of surrounding inscriptions as a chain, or they are carved to fill empty spaces. The juxtaposition of these motifs and inscriptions shows symbolic meanings. Also, in the four corners of some tombstones,  column-shaped designs can be seen that have a decorative purpose and hold a Muqrans design at their upper part which creates a sense of balance. These carved capitals on the four sides of the stone create balance and symmetry between the elements and motifs used in the stone. Eslimi plant motifs and spiral movements and their continuous repetition evoke the multiplicity in unity and the immortality of the world with continuous birth.

The expansion of territory and defense of the existing territories has been one of significant importance to the rulers throughout history, therefore, equipping the military and designing new war equipment  was a constant devour for all power institutions. In fact, the construction of war equipments for the purpose of defense, consolidation and expansion of the ruling power has always been the concern of said institutions in different ages.Ilkhans have also needed to build military equipment such as various types of armors and weapons to ensure their authority inside and outside their territory. They needed efficient weapons to show their glory and expand their territory and maintain their power. Therefore, skilled weapon makers were hired. Meanwhile, the attention of Iranian painters has recorded the history and details of war scenes and weapons used. Weapons and war equipments from the Ilkhani period are very rare and have artistic features. Today, despite archeological excavations in Ilkhani sites, not much information has been obtained about these equipment. In the meantime, paintings of the Ilkhani period, due to dealing with battle scenes, are considered as suitable sources to know about the types of war equipments of this period. In other words, the paintings left from the Ilkhani period are pictorial documents that provide us with an image of the war equipments popular in that era. In fact, the realism of paintings in the Ilkhani period compared to other periods of Iranian painting makes it possible to rely on them in order to gain insight about the shape of weapons and to reconstruct the weapons of the Ilkhani period. In addition, writers such as Rashid al-Din Fazlallah Hamdani have recorded the culture of the Ilkhans in Jame al-Tawarikh manuscript in the order of history. The pictures in Jame al-Tawarikh provide us with the details of the life of the Ilkhans. Also, travelers like Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta, who saw the court of Ilkhans and recorded their observations, are considered valuable sources.The present research is to study and analyze the paintings of the Ilkhani period, historical books, texts and travelogues, not only to study the types of war equipment used in this period, but also to present a scheme of them for further familiarization. The purpose of this article is to examine the form, decoration and use of the weapons of the Ilkhani period. in this regard, the present study is a historical, descriptive, and analytical research, and based on manuscripts and written historical sources, aims to answer the question of what kind of war equipments were used in the Ilkhani period? What form and decorations these war equipments had? If the forms and patterns of the war equipment in this period, indicate the military rank of the owner? And if these equipments had a military use or they were just ornamental?The findings of this research show that during the Ilkhanate era, a variety of swords, maces, spears, bows and arrows, defensive shields, armors, helmets and catapults were used during campaigns in the fields of war, and that except for maces with animal heads, other equipments had military use. The evidence shows that arrows and bows were among the most used war equipments in this period, the most frequent of which are in the book Jame al-Tawarikh and Demot's Shahnameh, and it is less common in other manuscripts left from that period. The drawing bows in this manuscript are similar, and only in the book of the Manafe al-Heyvan, a different bow is used. The arrows were carried inside the slings decorated with animal and plant motifs.According to the paintings of this period, in addition to military use and hunting and court ceremonies use, bows and arrows were sometimes used as gifts to the Emperor or Khan. After the bow and arrow, the most abundant are the war maces, which are the most numerous in Demotte Shahnameh and manuscripts Jame al-Tavarikh. Their difference is in the cross-section of the maces, which are multifaceted, winged, spherical, and maces in the shape of animal heads. Winged, round and multifaceted maces are used for military purposes, whereas, maces in the shape of animal heads are more like ornamental maces. This variety of mace in the paintings shows the importance of this war equipment among heroes and powerful people. In the paintings of this period, the mace can be seen in the hands of kings, officials, warriors and heroes in battlefields, hunting, court ceremonies and hand-to-hand combat. The image of a mace is not seen in Manafe al-Heyvan and Al-Athar Al-Bakiyah.Spears come third in popularity. The image of a spear can be seen in the manuscripts of Jame al-Tawarikh and Demotte Shahnameh, but is not present in other manuscripts. Bayonets without blades, short and long, are connected to a long wooden handle, and sometimes a small flag is installed on their upper part.The sword can be seen in all the examined manuscripts, but with less focus compared other equipments. The depicted swords have thin and curved blades and were placed inside a decorated scabbard. This goes back to the fighting style of the Ilkhans, because the Ilkhans were skilled horsemen whose army consisted of cavalry with bows and arrows who aimed shot atop horses. Also, the infantry were mostly equipped with war equipments such as spears, therefore, one of the largest volumes of equipments belongs to these two types. The image of the sword can be seen in court ceremonies, battlefields, hand-to-hand combat and fighting with legendary creatures in the hands of heroes and officials, and in some paintings in the hands of the Prophet and his companions.In terms of military equipment, the most abundant are helmets, which, in addition to covering the head, have a hanger to protect the neck. Most of the manuscripts helmets have a horn-like appendage at the top, which sometimes ends with a cloth ribbon or a bunch of hair. The drawn helmets show the military position of the people, in other words, the helmets of commanders, soldiers and heroes are distinctive. The shields depicted in this manuscript are round and circular, they look easily portable and sometimes their surface is decorated with geometric, eslimi, plant, and animal motifs. Only one example of a shield in Jama al-Tawarikh manuscript is preserved in the University of Edinburgh and one example in Jama al-Tawarikh manuscript is preserved in the Diz collection, a shield in the form of a teardrop (kite) with lion motifs, plant and eslimi motifs, has been observed.Most of the depicted battle armors are full-length armors that cover the entire body in layers. But in the paintings of Demotte Shahnameh and Al-Athar Al-Bakiyah, the battle armors are half-length, layered, and made from cloth or leather. The armor of this period also shows the military position of the individuals. another war equipment worth mentioning from that period is the catapult, whose four forms are depicted in Jamia al-Tavarikh and during the siege of the city by Ilkhans.The greatest abundance, diversity and changes in the form of war equipments of the Ilkhani period are shown in the pictures of Jame al-Tawarikh, Demotte Shahnameh, and there are similarities and differences in the form of each of the war equipment used among the manuscripts. This can be seen even in Jama al-Tawarikh manuscripts and even though all the manuscripts of Jama al-Tawarikh were done in Rab Rashidi and under the supervision of Rashid al-Din Fazlallah Hamdani, however, there are differences in the form on war equipment in Jama al-Tawarikh manuscripts.The equipment depicted in the two manuscripts of Jamia al-Tawarikh preserved in the University of Edinburgh and the Khalili collection are drawn very similar in form. These similarities can be seen more in bow and arrow, archer, spear, armor and shield. Meanwhile, the manuscript of Jame al-Tawarikh preserved in the Topkapisera Museum is depicted in the form of some war equipments different from the other two manuscripts, and in this manuscript, maces in the hands of leaders and commanders with different forms are very noticeable.In terms of form, the greatest similarity between war equipments in the paintings of the Ilkhani period can be seen in the form of bow bag, shield and layered armor, and the greatest difference can be seen in the form of mace and helmet. The motifs used on the war equipments of the Ilkhani period are mostly for decoration and are sometimes influenced by the art of China and Iran. These motifs can be seen in Jame al-Tawarikh with simple shapes, curved lines and sometimes animal motifs. The variety of motifs mentioned in Demotte Shahnameh is more and more delicately displayed, especially on the quiver.

One of the most famous Imams in Gilan is Hazrat Sultan Seyyed Jalaluddin Ashraf (AS). The city of Astana Ashrafieh is considered the fifth religious city of Iran due to the presence of his shrine.This research aims to first describe the decorations applied inSeyyed Jalaledin Ashraf Shrine, and then introduce the types of linear masonry and checkered grid structure used in said decorations. Masonry line is made up of sharp angles and observing the ratio of black to white is considered a principle in its design. This line is formed on the basis of a checkered grid, and therefore has square and sometimes rectangular movements, and as a result, creates a complete geometric design. The grid is an orderly network that plays an important role in the design and formation of the structure of the artwork. The construction line of this architecture includes simple, single-layer, straight, embowed, and triple-layer construction, the grading structure of each can be examined and reflected upon. The variety of masonry lines in this shrine has inspired the design of new masonry inscriptions to decorate the walls of the interior and exterior facades that are being renovated, which include a large portion of the wall of the women's mosque, a part of the courtyard wall, and the men's entrance.  With the aim of introducing the decorations in the structure of the shrine, this research has studied the typology and linear analysis of the masonry. In accordance with this goal, two questions are raised: 1- What is the hidden connection between the themes of inscriptions in Imamzadeh Hazrat Sultan Seyyed Jalaluddin Ashraf (AS) shrine and form and space? 2- How have architects applied calligraphy arrays (masonry lines) in architecture in order to convey their religious beliefs and ideas? Due to the lack of decorations and curves in the writing, the masonry line is in harmony with the main materials used in the building (bricks, tiles, etc.) and is in complete comformity with the architecture. Therefore, in this research, the masonry line has been specially considered.This research is fundamental-theoretical in terms of purpose and descriptive-analytical in terms of nature and method. It is based on library sources and field observations. It has been tried to examine the most significant examples of inscriptions with masonry lines from the blessed shrine of Sultan Seyyed Jalaluddin Ashraf (AS) of Astana Ashrafieh as the research material; therefore, selective sampling method has been used. In this research, the author has considered the sample size based on the purpose of the research and the type of the research material using the qualitative or targeted sampling method. The number of samples will be enough to provide data saturation, and the sample size has been estimated personally by taking into account specific factorsaccordingly 20 samples are selected from among the masonry line inscriptions (12 inscriptions with simple masonry lines3 inscriptions with one-line script, 3 inscriptions with horizontal and straight script, and 2 inscriptions with triple-line script), for the twenty samples are inscriptions that have been seen only once in the entire building. Some inscriptions are repeated in several different places, which have been avoided in sample selection process. 12 inscription designs have been proposed for the interior and exterior of the shrine (5 designs with simple masonry lines, 4 designs with single-line masonry lines and 3 designs with the embowed or straight masonry lines also 1 design for the flag of Imamzadeh is suggested.According to the overviews conducted on the architectural decorations of Imamzadeh Sultan Seyyed Jalaluddin Ashraf (AS), especially its masonry lines, the findings are as follows:- Masonry line consists of geometric shapes such as square, rectangle, parallel and intersecting lines that are in total harmony with the architectural integrity of the structure architecture. All the masonry inscriptions are executed in the form of tiling; Except for the ceiling and wall of the sub-porch and the women's sub-entrance which are made with glazed bricks.- Twenty masonry inscriptions have been used in this structure, which are of simple masonry type, one-sided, straight, embowed, and three-sided.  - Ruler or checkered grid is a structure consisting of horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines that by placing the work in them, create a geometric and coherent structure. In the simple construction design of this monument, only checkered grid with horizontal and vertical lines has been used, which sometimes, with respect to the execution space, has undergone a 45 degrees rotation. In order to avoid monotony in the masonry inscriptions of this plce, the other masonry lines have been given one-sided, straight, or embowed lines. In the one-sided designs, each frame is divided into two parts from the grid and the final design is presented in 45 degree squares. In the embowed and straight lines, each checkered grid is divided into three parts and the final design is presented in 3 squares of 45 degrees (up to this stage it is a triangle) and finally, by joining the three squares, the straight and embowed lines are revealed. (The full description of these structures is given in the text). The three-sided design can be implemented on the square grid according to the type of calligraphy. And its principles are different from other lines.- The name of this Imamzadeh was designed based on the ruler of simple masonry lines and presented to the board of trustees as a proposal for the flag above the dome.- In the Hazrat Sultan Seyyed Jalaluddin Ashraf (a.s.) shrine, simple, single-layer, straight and horizontal, and three-layer masonry lines are used, and the most variety of inscriptions is in the simple masonry type. Based on three design methods (simple masonry, single vein, straight and embowed), new masonry inscriptions have been designed to decorate the interior and exterior walls. (And of course, the point that should be mentioned is that due to the reconstruction of the shrine, the possibility of changing the name and destruction of some spaces in the future reconstructions  should be considered).- According to the design of the inscriptions of this shrine, 12 new inscriptions have been designed in the form of simple, uniform, straight and horizontal lines for the places under reconstruction and have been presented to the board of trustees as sampes for the proposed design.Finally, based on the contents and findings of the current research, the following questions can be answered:1- What is the hidden connection between the themes of inscriptions in Imamzadeh Hazrat Sultan Seyyed Jalaluddin Ashraf (AS) shrine and form and space?The carved inscriptions on the interior and exterior of Imamzadeh Hazrat Sultan Seyyed Jalaluddin Ashraf (a.s.) shrine inspire the meanings of the words of these inscriptions in the minds of believers. And they also make people understand the spiritual power of the name and words of God and the Imams, and since important and historical information is hidden in the inscriptions, they can act as media propagandize and imply divine teachings according to their form, space and content. And this is a sign of the important role that architects and scribes play in the cultural context and religious propaganda of the society in conveying the themes of the inscriptions.2- How have architects applied calligraphy arrays (masonry lines) in architecture in order to convey their religious beliefs and ideas?The results of the research findings show that the architects expressed their religious thoughts and beliefs in the form of inscriptions (Kufi calligraphy) engraved on the interior and exterior of the shrine, with topics such as the names of God, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Imam Ali (PBUH) etc. they annunciate the hope and belief in the emergence if the Savior and as it was mentioned before, the characteristic of the inscriptions as messengers makes the architects and scribes use these religious subjects in the implementation of the inscriptions and inspire their thoughts to the people.

Nature representation is one of the most important subjects in painting. The general concept of representing or imitating nature in art means that art is nothing but a narration of the nature; the artist recreates what he experiences in the outside world, i.e. nature, by means of artistic tools. The attraction of many paintings for us is because we see things in them that we enjoy watching directly. This is one of the special features of representational imagery.Painters have been drawn to the mysterious power of the sea for more than two thousand years. Some artists have painted heroic naval battles. Some show us how the strong storm affected the lives of people working at sea. Others have expressed the great liaison between sky and sea in colors which never occurs on the land. Marine art is a genre of art that places the sea and the ocean as its main focus. This genre of painting can include the human element (people working on ships, in battle, etc.). When seascape painting was first created, it was rare to see a composition without a ship or human presence in the foreground, as landscape art was not recognized as an individual genre and specialty until the 17th century. Early naval art often featured naval ships in battle, accompanied by rough and turbulent seas. This type of painting was placed in the homes of high naval officers to record real battles, or even legendary stories for entertainment and display.On the other hand, with the emergence of some developments and new definitions in philosophy, as a noble matter in the age of enlightenment, a new platform for exploring the meanings of works of art was provided. The beginning of the 19th century represented one of the most exciting flourishing in philosophical power and talent, which may be comparable to the generation that nurtured Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The greatness of the revolution initiated by Immanuel Kant in philosophy was comparable to the Copernican revolution that announced the end of the middle ages. The key concept of the sublime can illuminate new dimensions of the representation of nature.Kant's attitude towards the sublime as a kind of separate aesthetic category goes back to year 1764 and his treatise on the relationship between the sublime and beauty, entitled Considerations on the Sublime and the Beautiful. The sublime includes the feeling that is evoked as a result of the lack of imagination in the understanding of a very large object. Kant divides the sublime concept into two types: mathematical and dynamic. A very large object is understood either in terms of magnitude (size) or power. Mathematical and dynamic are distinguished depending on the connection with theoretical or practical reason. Mathematic highness expresses the fact that the subject of judgment is faced with vast magnitudes or greatness in time or space. Faced with the majestic object, the subject makes an aesthetic estimate of a magnitude in which the object is not really imagined as infinite, but only brings to mind the idea of ​​infinity, an idea that no reasonable intuition can conceive. It can be enough for that. Strength is superior to great obstacles. If it overcomes the resistance of something that has power, it is called force. Nature, considered in the aesthetic sense as a power that has no force on us, is a dynamic sublime.Despite the wide range of research on Immanuel Kant and the history of art, no research has been presented that focuses on the works of representation of the sea in the 19th century based on the concept of the sublime in Kant's philosophy. Therefore, due to the newness of this topic, the lack of complete research and the lack of centralized information, the present research, while examining the concept of the sublime and its types, is focused on examining the symbols and indicators of the sublime as well as the motivation of artists to create works of painting with the theme. The sea is discussed in the works of romantic paintings of the 19th century in Europe. The main question in this research is what is the interpretation of the representation of sea waves in romantic paintings based on the sublime? The current research was done with descriptive-analytical method and using the library collection method in collecting information. By selective sampling among the paintings of the sea in the 19th century Europe, five works have been selected and analyzed qualitatively. The method of selecting the works was such that first the romantic paintings related to the sea in the nineteenth century of Europe were examined. Among these, the works in which sea waves are the main subject or at least have a special place in the image were selected. In the last step, after examining the theoretical foundations and finding the concept of the sublime, the works in which the field of analysis was based on the sublime were selected. The final result was modified with the opinion of experts. The reviewed images were also selected as an internet search through reputable sites and galleries, led to the emergence of various artistic styles.The concepts of the beautiful and the sublime, which had entered the world of works of art in parallel with the spread of romanticism in the late 18th century, paved the way for explaining the meaning of romantic works. Until now, nature was represented with beautiful effects by the beautiful thing, but with the emergence of the sublime thing, it showed new characteristics. The sea was no longer depicted with its motherly qualities, the calm and life-giving waters that bless people's tables, but the angery and furious side of the sea startled people and showed it's the power and vastness of nature over the thinness and wisdom of the beings. Such a risky situation led to the discovery of aspects of human existence that could not be achieved before in the beautiful matter. The lofty and sublime matter was especially in a significant connection with the style of romanticism, which means the appearance of the meaning of the work in connection with it. Romanticism in its specific and limited sense is a phenomenon related to the beginning of the new era. The revolutions that founded the new world also shook the soul and mind of the western man.Romanticism was the product of this spiritual movement; it was an emotional response to the rapid changes that had begun. The results of this research show that the pattern of sea representation in 19th century paintings based on the concept of the sublime is different according to its type. The high and dynamic matter in the studied works is done through the display of the power and violence of the sea. Representations of sea storms, the overwhelming power of nature over humans, and sometimes even the representation of a metaphysical quality, become an arena for visual metaphor and symbolic expression of the artist's intention.The apprehension caused by the events in dealing with the wild nature revives a high dynamic feeling in the subject and shows the human ability to deal with it. But if he finds himself safe from its harm, he experiences a kind of pleasant feeling that is the result of stopping an unpleasantness. The artist draws the majesty and vastness of the sea for the high mathematical display. The vastness of the sea creates a feeling of infinity in the subject. This greatness and infinity does not occur in nature, which actually occurs in the subject's mind. Therefore, according to Kant, natural objects such as the vast ocean and the like are called sublime only when the mind is already full of various ideas so that such an intuition arouses a feeling in the subject that can be called sublime, in otherwise, this exaltation appears simply scary for a person without the growth and evolution of mental ideas. In the following table, the characteristics of the reviewed works are briefly compared.