فهرست مطالب

Medical Physics - Volume:16 Issue: 1, Jan-Feb 2019

Iranian Journal of Medical Physics
Volume:16 Issue: 1, Jan-Feb 2019

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1397/10/23
  • تعداد عناوین: 16
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  • Ali A Abojassim * Pages 1-7
    Introduction
    This study was conducted to measure the gamma emitters (e.g., uranium-238 [238U], thorium-232 [232Th], and potassium-40[40K]) and alpha emitters (e.g., radon-222 [222Rn] and radium), and also to evaluate the radiation hazard indices of radionuclides in parenteral nutrition samples utilized in the hospitals of Iraq.
    Material and
    Methods
    The measurements were accomplished using gamma-ray spectroscopy with NaI (Tl) detector, solid state nuclear track detector (CR-39), and RAD-7 detector. Gamma radiation hazard indices, such as radium equivalent activity and internal hazard index, were also calculated.
    Results
    According to the results, the mean specific activities of the radionuclides belonging to the uranium (238U) and thorium series (232Th) in the parenteral nutrition samples were 1.17±0.20 and 0.185±0.026 Bq/kg, respectively (range: 0.33±0.17-1.81±0.42 Bq/kg and 0.09±0.03-0.28±0.06 Bq/kg, respectively). However, natural radionuclide (40K) was not detected in all samples. Furthermore, the mean values of radon and radium concentrations were 13.77±2.84 mBq/L and 0.19±0.03 mBq/kg, respectively using CR-39 detector (range: 2.00-29.97 mBq/L and 0.03-0.41 mBq/kg, respectively). There was a significant correlation (R2=0.91) between the concentrations estimated by the CR-39 and RAD-7 detectors. In addition, a significant correlation (R2=0.90) was observed between 238U and 222Rn.
    Conclusion
    The comparison of the results obtained in the present study with the worldwide average revealed that all values were within the recommended range given by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, World Health Organization, and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. In other words, the parenteral nutrition samples under study were safe for consumption and did not expose the citizens to any hazards.
    Keywords: Gamma Radiation, Radon, Parenteral Nutrition, NaI (Tl), CR-39, Hospitals
  • Michael Onoriode Akpochafor *, SAMUEL OLAOLU ADENEYE, Kehinde Ololade, AKINTAYO DANIEL OMOJOLA , OLUWAFEMI sunday Ajibade, Nusirat Adedewe, Aderonke Adedokun , Moses Aweda, Oluyemi Bright Aboyewa Pages 8-14
    Introduction
    Quality assurance in Computed tomography (CT) centers in developing countries are largely hindered by the unavailability of CT phantoms. The development of a local CT phantom for the measurement of organ radiation absorbed dose is therefore requisite.
    Material and
    Methods
    Local CT phantoms were designed to meet the standard criteria of 32 cm diameter for body, 16 cm diameter for head, and 14 cm in length respectively. The outer plastic shell was made using poly (methyl methacrylate [PMMA]) sheet. The developed CT phantoms were validated against a standard phantom. Radiation absorbed dose was determined by scanning the setup with the same protocol used for the standard phantom. The local phantoms were then verified for organ radiation absorbed dose measurement using bovine tissues. The set up was CT-scanned, and Hounsfield units (HU) for bovine tissues were obtained.
    Results
    There was no significant difference between the local and standard head phantoms (P=0.060). Similarly, no difference was noted between the local and standard body phantoms (P=0.795). The percentage difference in volume CT dose index (CTDIvol) between the body (local and standard) phantoms was higher than that for the head phantoms. There were no significant differences in HU between bovine and human brain, liver, kidney and lung tissues (P=0.938).
    Conclusion
    The local phantoms showed good agreement with the standard ones. The developed phantoms can be used for CT organ radiation absorbed dose measurement in radiology departments in Nigeria.
    Keywords: Phantom, Organ, Radiation Dosage, Computed Tomography, Thermoluminescent Dosimetry
  • Basim A Almayahi* _Aseel F Alfarhad_Ayad Resen Pages 15-18
    Introduction
    In this study, we investigated contaminants in sediments of reverse osmosis water systems in Iraqi households. These filters are imported from the US and Taiwan and are available in the Iraqi market. The rate of environmental pollutions in residues of the water filters was examined by measuring alpha particles emission rates and the concentration of heavy metals.
    Material and
    Methods
    In this study, we measured the rate of alpha particles emission using CR-39 detector. Heavy elements were measured using an atomic absorption spectrometer.
    Results
    The highest value of cadmium was found in Ghadeer district and the lowest cadmium value in Alswag district. The highest value of lead was found in Ghadeer district and the lowest in Aljameha. The emission rates of alpha particles were found to be the lowest in the sediments of Ghadeer district, and the highest values were found in Khan Almkhdhar.
    Conclusion
    The average concentrations of dissolved Cd and Pb were higher than the safe limits for Iraq specifications and the world standard limit.
    Keywords: Reverse Osmosis, CR-39, World Health Organization Radionuclides
  • Mohsen Asadinezhad , Mohammad Taghi Bahreyni Toossi* , Mina Nouri Pages 19-26
    Introduction
    International Commission on Radiological Protection introduced three basic principles of radiation protection, namely justification, optimization, and dose limit. Medical exposure has no dose limits, and generally, diagnostic reference levels are used as a tool for optimization of patient protection.
    Material and
    Methods
    Dosimetry was performed on 20 CT scanners located in 14 cities in 12 provinces of Iran. A calibrated pencil-shaped ionization chamber, standard head and body CT dosimetry phantoms and a radiation monitor were used to determine and calculate Computed Tomography Dose Index (CTDI) and Dose Length Product (DLP). The DLP-based estimates of effective dose were derived using effective dose conversion coefficients.
    Results
    The nCTDIw values for head phantoms fell within the range of 22.05-168.38 and 43.77-426.69 µGy/mAs for 5 and 10mm slice thicknesses, respectively. These values for body phantom were 4.65-146.39 and 9.43-308.92 µGy/mAs for 5 and 10mm slice thicknesses, respectively. The third quartile of CTDIvol and DLP values for head CT examinations were 49.85 mGy and 1161.00 mGy-cm, respectively. The body CT examinations had the values of 8.89 mGy and 370.97 mGy-cm, respectively. The findings of this study revealed that the above-mentioned values can be considered as national diagnostic reference levels for head and body CT examinations in Iran.
    Conclusion
    The results of the current study suggested that there is a need to re-assess DRLs for CT examinations at regular time intervals by the appropriate regulatory authority which can improve the continuous performance of CT scanners in Iran.
    Keywords: Computed Tomography, Iran, Radiation Dosimetry
  • Atef ElTaher , Laith Najam*, Imad Hussian, Mohammed Ahmed Ali Omar Pages 27-33
    Introduction
    This Study has was carried out to measure and detect the natural occurred radionuclide content including 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in the Nile River sediments at various locations in Upper Egypt, from Aswan to El-Minya. Additionally, we determine the absorbed dose rate, the annual effective dose equivalent, and excess lifetime cancer risk also has been calculated.
    Material and
    Methods
    The gamma ray measurements were performed with a high resolution High-Purity Germanium detector, low background, and Personal Computer multichannel analyzer.
    Results
    In Aswan Governorate, the mean specific activities of radionuclide's (226Ra,232Th and 40K) 14.86, 13.78 and 175.4 in Bq/kg respectively. In Qena Governorate, the mean specific activities of mentioned radionuclides were 14.44 Bq/kg, 15.02 Bq/kg and 197.57 Bq/kg, respectively. These values were18.53 Bq/kg, 11.3 Bq/kg and 184.73 Bq/kg in Sohag Governorate, respectively. In Asyut Governorate the mean specific activities of the radionuclide's were 11.38 Bq/kg, 10.0 Bq/kg, and 164.715 Bq/kg, respectively. However, these values were 19.56 Bq/kg, 11.72 Bq/kg, and 239.92 Bq/kg in Minya Governorate, respectively. The hazard indices of gamma radiation such as Absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose equivalent and excess lifetime cancer risk were calculated.
    Conclusion
    According to the results, all the values were within the reported values by the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. In addition, there was no likelihood of radiological health hazards to the population living close to the Nile river
    Keywords: Dose Rate, Gamma Spectroscopy, Hazard Indices, Radionuclides
  • Mohammad Hashemi , Shahram Bayani Roodi, Fateme Shahedi, Mahdi Momennezhad, Hoda Zare , Hamid Gholamhosseinian* Pages 34-40
     
    Introduction
    Regular implementation of quality control (QC) program in diagnostic X-ray facilities may affect both image quality and patient radiation dose due to the changes in exposure parameters. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the status of randomly selected conventional radiographic X-ray devices installed in radiology centers of Great Khorasan Province, Iran, to produce the data needed to formulate QC policies, which are essential to ensure the accuracy of the diagnosis while minimizing the radiation dose.
    Material and
    Methods
    This cross-sectional study was performed using a calibrated Piranha multi-purpose detector to measure QC parameters in order to unify X‐ray imaging practices using international guidelines. The QC parameters included voltage accuracy, voltage reproducibility, exposure time accuracy, exposure time reproducibility, tube output linearity with time andmilliampere (mA), and tube output reproducibility. Data analysis procedures were performed based on the type of an X-ray generator, which has not been reported in previous studies.
    Results
    The results showed that the implementation of high-frequency X-ray generators were more advantageous compared to alternative current generators, due to their efficient, better accuracy, linearity, and reproducibility.
    Conclusion
    The survey revealed that the QC program was not conducted at regular intervals in some of the investigated radiology centers, mostly because of inadequate enforcement by national regulatory authorities for implementation of QC program.
    Keywords: Diagnostic Equipment, Quality Control, Radiography
  • adhraa Hassan *_Ahmed Abdul Hadi Mohsen_hussien zahed _Ali A Abojassim Pages 41-47
     
    Introduction
    Alpha particle emitters are very damaging and harmful when entering into the human body ,if ingested or inhaled , swallowed or absorbed into the lungs or bloodstream . Uranium (238U), Radium (226Ra) and Radon (222Rn) are typical alpha-particle emitters.
    Material and
    Methods
    we measured the level of alpha particles emitted from 222Rn, 226Ra, and 238U in blood samples of 10 cancer patients diagnosed using solid-state nuclear track detector. The samples were collected from hospitals located in Karbala Governorate of Iraq. This study was carried out between October and December 2017. Alpha particles concentrations of the collected blood samples were estimated in patient and control groups.
    Results
    The mean concentrations of radon, radium, and uranium concentration were 64.3±25.92 Bq/m3, 3.1±1.24 Bq/kg and 1.4±0.58 ppm, respectively. Also, the results showed that radon concentrations, activity concentrations of radon, radium concentrations, and uranium concentrations were significantly higher in the patient group compared to the controls (P<0.05).
    Conclusion
    It was found that radon concentrations in all the studied blood samples were within the allowed limit according to International Commission on Radiological Protection and International Atomic Energy Agency (200 Bq/m3), except for sample C4(male, type of cancer is colon) that had a value of 265.15±18.94 Bq/m3
    Keywords: Alpha Particles, Blood, Cancers, Iraq
  • Homa Hayati, Asghar Mesbahi* Pages 48-55
     
    Introduction
    The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of X-ray spectra on the sensitivity of a polymer gel dosimeter imaged with a conventional computed tomography (CT) scanner.
    Material and
    Methods
    The whole process of CT imaging of an irradiated polymer gel was simulated by MCNPX Monte Carlo (MC) code. The imaging of polyacrylamide gel was accomplished by means of a conventional X-ray CT scan machine for different X-ray spectra, including mono-energetic beams and the spectra generated after passing through physical filters, including copper and tin. The MC-scored photon fluence inside simulated detectors was used to reconstruct the axial CT images by MATLAB software. The resultant images were used to derive the dose calibration curve of the gel for different spectra, based on which the highest sensitivity was selected.
    Results
    Among the calculated gel sensitivities for different beam spectra, the highest increase in average sensitivity was obtained as 23% for the 140 kVp spectrum with copper filter and copper+tin filter. However, the sensitivity of mono-energetic beams showed no considerable variation with the increase of energy from 30 to 140 keV.
    Conclusion
    As the findings indicated, the optimization of photon spectra by means of a physical filter could increase the sensitivity of polymer gels in gel dosimetry using CT imaging
    Keywords: Diagnostic Equipment, Quality Control, Radiography
  • Armin Imanparast, Mohamadreza Diba, Ameneh Sazgarnia* Pages 56-63
     
    Introduction
    Mitoxantrone (MX) has been introduced as a photosensitizer drug. However, due to some side effects, the widespread use of this drug has been confronted with some limitations. Hollow gold nanoshells (HGN) have attracted considerable attention due to their interesting photochemical features that can use as nanocarrier. In this paper, the thermal response of MX and the use of this property for thermal effects during the photodynamic process by MX-conjugated HGN were investigated.
    Material and
    Methods
    After optimizing the synthesis of ultimate nanostructure, the characteristics of pharmacological agents including MX, HGN, methoxy polyethylene glycol (mPEG)-HGN, and MX-mPEG-HGN were determined. Then, the thermal response of MX was determined at 0-50°C. Finally, by applying light irradiation with a non-coherent source at a wavelength of 670 nm and exposures of 0 to 50 j/cm2, the profile release and temperature variation in MX-mPEG-HGN were determined.
    Results
    The zeta potentials of HGN and MX were negative, which resulted in electrostatic repulsion between them. In order to solve this challenge, the surface modification of HGN with mPEG was performed, resulting in the chemical bonding of the drug with the nanostructures and increasing the stability of the final nanostructure. With increasing temperature, the optical density of the drug at 660 nm significantly increased, which is an effective induction of photodynamic effect.
    Conclusion
    In this study, we used mPEG-HGN as the nanocarrier for MX. Also, the thermal behavior of MX was recognized as an important factor in increasing temperature that could improve the photodynamic process
    Keywords: Mitoxantrone, Nanoshells, Photodynamic, Photothermal
  • Parva Kalhor*, Vahid Changizi, Seyed Abolfazl Hosseini, Elahe Jazayeri Pages 64-74
     
    Introduction
    Utilization of computed tomography (CT) scans is increasing annually. This study aimed to reduce the absorbed dose of sensitive organs in the head (eye lenses and thyroid) and to assess changes in resultant images quality in head scans when the radiation dose is decreased.
    Material and
    Methods
    An anthropomorphic phantom was examined with head protocols in both helical and sectional modes using two 16-slice CT scanners. The entrance surface dose of eye lenses and thyroid was measured with standard protocols and after reducing the mAS and kilo-voltage using thermo-luminescence dosimeters (TLDs).
    Results
    In sectional mode with standard protocol, the highest surface dose was 2.3 mSv1 for eye lens and 0.021 mSv for thyroid in hospital A. Moreover, in helical mode with standard protocol, the highest surface dose was 0.964 and 0.02 mSv for eye lens and thyroid in hospital B, respectively. Reducing tube current and kilovoltage decreased the dose up to 35% for eye lens and 45% for thyroid in hospital A. By the mentioned reductions a dose decrease of up to 40% was achieved for both eye lens and thyroid in hospital B. There were no considerable differences in image quality between scans with standard protocol and the protocols of reduced parameters.
    Conclusion
    Head CT scans with standard factors conduce to images with the best quality. It may be possible to diminish the absorbed dose up to 40% without losing information, especially in follow up head scans
    Keywords: Computed Tomography (CT), Eye Lens, Thyroid
  • Debashri Manna, Sagar Sanyal, Rita Ghosh* Pages 75-84
     
    Introduction
    Radiation from cell phones has been associated with an increased risk of cancer. The literature has reported evidence of certain biological effects resulting from exposure to various wavelengths, doses, and intensities of radiofrequency radiation. The present study aimed to evaluate the possible adverse effects of radiation from a GSM mobile phone operating at 900 MHz on human melanoma A375 cells.
    Material and
    Methods
    Cellular morphology was observed under an inverted phase contrast microscope. Cell viability was determined through trypan blue dye exclusion and clonogenic assay. Moreover, flow cytometry was applied to detect DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Cellular reduced glutathione (GSH) content was estimated by measuring the total soluble thiol. In addition, the physico-chemical changes were assessed using spectrophotometer and viscometer.
    Results
    This study revealed that there was no change in cellular morphology and necrotic cell killing; although a small effect was observed on delayed cell death. Depletion in GSH content was noted, but ROS generation was not significantly different from that of the control group. No DNA damage was found during such exposure and there was no alteration in cell cycle distribution. In vitro evaluation of radiation effect on calf thymus DNA showed a slight perturbation in absorption spectra that was completely reversible with time. On the other hand, viscometric analysis showed no changes.
    Conclusion
    From the findings, it can be concluded that this range of mobile phone radiation for 60 min of continuous exposure has no genotoxic impact on A375 cells.
    Keywords: Cell Cycle Arrest, DNA damage, Electromagnetic Radiation, Reduced Glutathione, Reactive Oxygen Species, Viability
  • Tajudeen Ayinde Olaniyan *, Caleb Ayoade Aborisade, Fatai Akintunde Balogun, Sulaiman Ogunsina, Aminu Saidu, Mark Ibrahim Pages 85-90
     
    Introduction
    The dose in computed tomography (CT) often approach or exceed the optimum levels, thereby increasing the probability of cancer induction. With wide application of this diagnostic test, it is expedient to determine the effective dose (ED) for each patient to estimate their cancer risk. This study was conducted to investigate the patient-specific dose (PSD) and cancer risk in CT examinations in Ondo, Nigeria.
    Material and
    Methods
    The study was conducted on 160 patients undergoing eight most common types of CT examinations performed at the center, from December 5, 2015 to February 28, 2016. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated for each patient using demographic data, PSD was determined and estimation of the lifetime attributable risk (LAR) of cancer was accomplished using the Biologic Effects of Ionizing Radiation VII (2006) report phase 2 models.
    Results
    From the results, radiation doses varied significantly within and between the types of CT examinations. The mean ED was 5.88±3.75 mSv in a range of 0.78-19.00 mSv. The mean PSD was 0.274±0.229 mSv/kgm-2 in a range of 0.024-1.555 mSv/kgm-2 and the mean LAR of cancer incidence was 0.04861±0.03996 Sv-1 in a range of 0.00004-0.21942 Sv-1.
    Conclusion
    ED and PSD varied within and across the CT examinations. In this regard, the coefficients of variation of ED for abdominal, cranial, craniocervical, abdomen/pelvis, thoracic, thoracoabdominal, cervical spine, and pelvis were 5.7%, 6.6%, 3.9%, 8.9%,3.7%, 6.0%, 44.7%, and 19.2%, respectively. Accordingly, the coefficients of variation of PSD were 9.0%, 7.9%, 7.0%, 10.1%,5.6%,23.8%, 47.7%, and 14.2%.
    Keywords: Computed Tomography (CT), Radiation Protection, Eeffective Dose, BEIR VII Model, Risk Assessment
  • Maryam Papie , Reza Faghihi, Sedigheh Sina*, Samira Sarshogh Pages 91-97
     
    Introduction
    Long-term teletherapy program is not suitable for old and working patients and those living in areas where little access to primary health care is available. Accelerated partial breast irradiation (APBI) using high dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy is an appropriate alternative for these patients due to its limited number of fractions. The AccuBoost is a system for delivering APBI. The brachytherapy dose is delivered from parallel-opposed beams from 192Ir sources in circle applicators. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of breast phantom material on the dose distribution in AccuBoost brachytherapy using Monte Carlo N-Particle method.
    Material and
    Methods
    In this study,different inhomogeneous breast phantoms composed of various materials were simulated. Dosimetric evaluations including a comparison of dose distribution between different breast phantom materials and water phantom was performed.
    Results
    There was no significant difference between the breast and water phantoms in terms of mean dose values in different positions of each phantom. The most significant differences between the doses of different compositions and water were found to be about 6% near the skin.
    Conclusion
    No significant differences were observed between the breast phantoms composed of diverse materials and water phantoms considering the dose distributions. Therefore, it is not necessary to replace the current treatment planning systems using Task Group No. 43 formalism with combined model-based and patient-specific dosimetry methods.
    Keywords: Breast Density, Cancer Treatment, Dosimetry Calculation, Radiation, Peripheral Device
  • Marzban Parhoudeh, Karim Khoshgard *, Mohammad Reza Zare, Ali Ebrahiminia Pages 98-102
     
    Introduction
    Human has always been exposed to background ionizing radiation. Interaction between ionizing radiation and the biological system can lead to changes in cells or tissues inducing diseases, such as cancer. With this background in mind, this experimental study aimed to evaluate the specific activity of water radionuclides in Kermanshah province, western region of Iran.
    Material and
    Methods
    The specific activities of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radionuclides in drinking water were assessed by gamma-ray spectrometer with high-purity Germanium detector. The water samples were collected from different towns (14 sites) in Kermanshah province on winter and summer seasons.
    Results
    The mean specific activity levels of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radionuclides in Bq/l were 0.53±0.28, 1.07±0.43, and 7.17±5.37 in winter, respectively. In addition, during summer the mean specific activities of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K were 0.61±0.20, 0.76±0.36, and 5.67±3.7 Bq/l, respectively. Contributions of the consumed water samples to annual effective dose for these radionuclides in adults was calculated to be in the range of 0.0015-0.24 mSv/y with the mean of 0.15 mSv/y.
    Conclusion
    Findings of the present study demonstrate that the radioactivity level in drinking water due to 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radionuclides in Kermanshah province is lower than the guidance levels recommended by the World Health Organization report (WHO-2011). Moreover, the mean annual effective dose caused by these radionuclides in Kermanshah province is lower than the global average level (0.29 mSv/y) reported by United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR 2000).
    Keywords: Drinking Water Gamma Spectroscopy Iran, Kermanshah Natural Radioactivity
  • Muhammad Shahban* , Muhammad Waqar, Quratulain Soomro, Muhammad Qasim, Umar Ijaz Pages 103-111
     
    Introduction
    Irregular/blocked fields are routinely used in radiotherapy. The doses of these fields are usually calculated by means of equivalent square method that is inherently prone to uncertainty. On the other hand, Clarkson’s sector integration method is a dose calculation method which offers far better accuracy in dose calculation of irregular fields. The Scatter Air Ratio (SAR) of an individual sector, in which whole field has been divided, is calculated and averaged over all sectors to find total SAR for the whole field. Percentage depth dose (PDD) and tissue-maximum ratio (TMR) for irregularly shaped beams can be calculated by the SAR values using the standard relationships of these measurement quantities.
    Material and
    Methods
    The present study was conducted on 40 actual patient treatment fields. The PDD values for depths up to 15 cm were calculated using both Clarkson’s sector integration method and conventional methods, and their results were compared with the measured PDDs for all patients.
    Results
    Maximum deviation for Clarkson’s calculation was under 2.7% for any field size, shape, and depth. However for conventional methods, this value exceeded ±5.5% for some field shapes, specifically at larger depths.
    Conclusion
    Better results of sector integration are more prominent for field shapes with a large field size and a shielded area of regular shape. For the treatment fields with a very large degree of approximation for assessing reduced field size, Clarkson’s method is the most accurate technique for the calculation of absorbed dose.
    Keywords: Cancer, Field Size, Radiation Dosimetry, Radiotherapy
  • Ali Hussein Taqi*, kharmen Faraj , Sarah Zaynal, Jalil Said, Ahmed Hameed Pages 112-119
     
    Introduction
    The aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of X-ray radiation on some hematological parameters, morphology of red blood cells (RBC) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) analysis of human blood using computed tomography (CT) scanner.
    Material and
    Methods
    For the purpose of the study, 5 ml of wholeblood was drawn from vein puncture of 28 healthy people and divided into two equal parts in ethylendiamintetracetic acid (EDTA) tubes. The first 28 tubes were assigned as the controls. The second 28 tubes were divided into 4 groups of 7 cases, irradiated to (3, 6, 9, and 12) Gy, X-ray from a computed tomography CT-scan machine.
    Results
    The results showed that no significant difference was observed for the hematological parameters and ESR analysis. However, there was a significant decrease in the radius of RBCs.In this regard, the mean RBC counts were obtained as 6.267 ± 0.528, 6.867 ± 0.476, 7.167 ± 0.535, and 6.55 ± 0.295 μm after exposure to the radiation doses of 3, 6, 9, and 12 Gy, respectively. The crenation of the cells was also observed, and the percentage of crenation were <5%, 15%, 40%, and 60% after irradiation to 3, 6, 9, and 12 Gy, respectively.
    Conclusion
    The in vitro irradiation of human blood to different X-ray doses (i.e.,3, 6, 9, and 12 Gy), resulted in the enhancement of RBCs crenation with increasing the dose, and reduction of the cell radius compared to those in the control groups. However, the hematological parameters and ESR analysis were not statistically affected.
    Keywords: blood Cells, CT Scan, Exposure, X-Ray