فصلنامه علوم اعصاب شفای خاتم
سال دوم شماره 4 (پیاپی 10، پاییز 1393)

Attachment theory is one of the appropriate models for understanding the adaptive and maladaptive methods that people are faced multiple developmental challenges by these models. Secure attachment Experience is necessary for healthy and normal development, and it is the substructure of mental health functioning. This study examined the relationship between attachment styles with anxiety and somatization disorders.
The research was a descriptive-correlational study. The statistical population comprised of all students at coed universities in Tehran. A group of 384 male and female students (due to the population size by using the Cochran formula), using random multiple cluster sampling method, were selected. The adult attachment inventory (AAI) and the symptom checklist-90-revised (SCL-90-R) were completed by these students. For data analysis, correlation coefficients and regression analysis were used.
Our data revealed a significant correlation between attachment style and vulnerability to anxiety and somatization disorders.
Insecure attachment styles (ambivalent and avoidant) can play an important role in the creation and maintenance of anxiety and somatization disorders. Therefore, evaluation of these traumatic factors can lead to a new orientation in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the disorders mentioned above.

Pathophysiology of depression is a controversial issue. Hippocampal lesions could lead into depression as well as to changing the levels of several cytokines, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF- α). The present study was aimed to investigate the mechanism of depression induced by trimethyltin (TMT) intoxication and to study the effect chronic administration of lithium chloride (Li) on depression in this animal model.
The animals were divided into TMT⸭, TMT⸮, TMT Li80 and TMT䦩 groups, which were received 8 mg/kg TMT and 20, 40 or 80 mg/kg of Li or saline, respectively, for fourteen days. In order to define the depression level, the immobility time of the rats was measured in the forced swim test (FST), and tail suspension test (TST). Then, the serum level of TNF-α, BDNF and wet weight of the brains were measured.
The immobility time in FST and TST was longer in the rats who received TMT, whereas the rats receiving Li showed a significantly less immobility compared to the TMT䦩抝 group. In addition, Li administration increased the serum level of BDNF and wet weight of the brains and decreased the TNF-α level compared to the TMT䦩抝 group.
The decrease in BDNF or the increase in inflammation factors (especially TNF-α) occurred in accompany by depression symptoms in TMT intoxication model. On the other hand, chronic administration of Li may modulate the cytokines and amelioration of behavioral symptoms.

The volunteers of the emergent reaction are the groups of people who play a vital role after natural disasters and events. The meaning of life can have the vital role in the stability, internal motivation, and the achievement of these people during their rescue activities. The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between spiritual intelligence and moral intelligence as important variables in the meaning of life among a group of Iranian volunteers of the emergent reaction in 2013-2014.
The research population includes all the volunteers of emergency reaction in Shahr-e Rey, Tehran, Iran. The research sample included 184 men and women who were selected by multistage random sampling method. To measure the variables, spiritual intelligence, moral intelligence, and the meaning of life questionnaires were used. Pearson correlation, multivariate regressions analyses, and T-tests were used for statistical analysis of the data.
The results revealed a significant positive relationship between the meaning of life and spiritual intelligence as well as the meaning of life and moral intelligence. The results were exposed that spiritual intelligence explains 5.6 percent of the observed difference in the meaning of life among men and 18.6 among women. In addition, moral intelligence explains the variation of life meaning among 13.2% of men and 6.8% of women. There was no significant relationship between spiritual intelligence, moral intelligence, and meaning of life between men and women.
These data suggest the crucial role of spiritual and moral intelligence with the meaning of life in the volunteers of the emergent reaction.

Fatigue is considered to be one of the main causes of impaired quality of life among patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Creatine enhances ATP synthesis and possesses antioxidant properties. There has been interest in the use of creatine supplement for fatigue and muscle strength in neurological disorders. It has previously been reported that, using 20 gram/day creatine supplement for 5-7 days followed by 5 gram/day for another 7 days did not ameliorate fatigue in patients with MS. In this study, we aimed to determine whether longer application of creatine supplement would be effective in controlling fatigue in these patients.
In a double-blind controlled trial, 20 patients with MS with fatigue and mild to moderate disability were randomly assigned to creatine (10 gram, two times a day for 14 days) and placebo (10 patients in each group). Fatigue was assessed at baseline and after 14 days using fatigue severity scale (FSS).
No significant differences were observed between FSS score before and after the intervention. Furthermore, no significant difference was observed between the experimental groups in the mean difference of FSS.
Creatine supplementation had no significant effect on fatigue score even after longer administration.

Methamphetamine is a central nervous system stimulant and one of the most common drugs which used in the United States and some Asian countries like Japan. Its use has been increased in the recent years in Iran. Using histological and stereological methods the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of long-term administration of methamphetamine on the number and size of different cell layers of the cerebellum in mice.
A total of 30 male mice (weight: 45gr, age: 8 weeks) were divided into three groups (10 mice each group) and group I (control) received normal saline and groups II and III received methamphetamine (0.1 and 1 mg/kg respectively), intra-peritoneally. The animals were anesthetized with ketamine after one month and the cerebellum was removed and fixed in 5% formalin. Then, the left cerebellum hemispheres slides were stained with toluidine blue and hematoxylin-eosine method. The volume of cerebellar cortex layers was investigated by Cavalieri's principle, using point counting. To calculate the number of Purkinje and granular cells, physical dissector method was used.
Methamphetamine decreased cerebellar volume, the volume of the granular layer, the number of granular and Purkinje cells in both experimental groups compared to control group. Methamphetamine consumption also decreased the volume of molecular layer in the 1 mg/kg group compared to control group. Furthermore, methamphetamine increased the volume of white matter in the 1 mg/kg group compared to control mice and the 0.1 mg/kg group.
Methamphetamine reduces the cells and volume of cerebellar possibly due to cell injury and neuronal death. Enhancement of the white matter could be a compensatory reaction to the cerebellum cells loss.

Neuromarketing is an interdisciplinary field that is rapidly emerging in the world of consumer cognition research. Furthermore, it is an innovative field of marketing research which challenges the classic marketing model to improve our understanding of the processes associated with purchasing behavior. Neuromarketing is investigating the manner that consumers make the decision to purchase. Based on the neuromarketing concept of decision processing, consumer buying decisions rely on bi-systemic approaches. System 1 is based on fast automatic operations in contrast, decisions driven by System 2 are deliberate, conscious reasoning, and slow. In cognition of the consumer behavior, these processes guide everyday purchasing decisions. Furthermore, neuromarketing is built on the top of at least three basic science fields, including neuroscience, behavioral economics, and social psychology. The aim of this review was to investigate the different aspects of neuroscience involved in neuromarketing. The signals from the human body and brain are important for understanding the origins and operations of neuromarketing measures. Body measures are contained the facial expressions, eye movements, eye blink, startle reflex, behavioral responses, electrodermal activity, heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, and respiration. The human brain signals are captured by the blood oxygenation, positron emissions, electrical fields, and magnetic fields.
Understanding the basic functions of human brain is crucial in investigation of consumers’ purchasing behaviors.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of central nervous system that is characterized by the progressive loss of myelin. In addition to immunoregulatory properties, novel MS therapies promote myelin repair activities. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been viewed as a potent tool for regenerative and immunosuppressive functions, indicating a potential therapy for MS. MSCs have immunological functions which are exerted by direct cell-to-cell contacts, secretion of stimulatory and inhibitory cytokines, and/or a combination of both mechanisms. Therefore, these cells can inhibit differentiation and proliferation of T-cell and stimulate the Th2 and regulatory T-cells through inhibitory effects on the immune system.
In the current review, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory effect of MSCs in different experimental models of MS.

Magnetic resonance tractography is a method to identifying anatomical connections in the living human brain. This technique uses data obtained from diffusion of water molecules to display two-dimensional or three-dimensional images of the nerve fiber tracts through performing computational analysis. Thus¡ it will be possible to check the status of fibers with performing this technique. It is one of the advance techniques in the field of neuroscience which has a diagnostic potential in neurological diseases¡ such as brain tumors¡ normal pressure hydrocephalus¡ multiple sclerosis¡ stroke¡ and a large number of other neurological disorders.
Tractography is a useful method to identify nerve tracts non-invasively and in-vivo. Compared to invasive techniques¡ non-invasive nature and ease of obtaining data enable this method to a suitable technique for pre-operative planning of brain surgery.