نشریه مطالعات بین المللی
سال چهاردهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 53، تابستان 1396)

Impunity in international law is defined as exemption from punishment for committing human rights violations. Criminal negligence is becoming a deep concern in non-governmental organizations in the global arena, forcing them to attempt to bring human rights violators to justice. Hence, many non-governmental organizations in the world pay special attention to the prosecution of human rights violators, and try to push governments and international organizations to chase and pursue the perpetrators, without any regards to the perpetrators’ political status. These concerns and efforts have also led to the formation of international coalitions under the rules of international law.
In the case of impunity regarding the violation of Palestinian rights in the occupied territories,the grassroots organizations have entered the war in two ways: first, they preparedocumentariesof the violation of Israel’s international obligations toward the Palestinians, such as the destruction of residences, forced resettlement, seizing lands, violence toward the inhabitants of the occupied territories, and etc. Then, they provide free legal assistance for defending human rights. With the efforts of non-governmental activists, the siege of Gaza, as being one of the inconsistent measures with human rights, has been identified as a major crisis in the world. This paper assessesthe role and the effectiveness of grassroots organizations’ activitiesin informing the world about the impunity of the authorities and organizations that violate the human rights of the inhabitants of the occupied territories.

Crowded orbits full of satellites and emerging actors in the current space activity represent the role of technologies in space strategies. Furthermore, they highlight the risk of harming the national space security by space actors and non-actors from threats that arise from space competition. Therefore, actors such as Iran face competition with space powers, especially since it is predicted that in the next two decades, Iran would be considered as a developed country, with first class economic, scientific, and technological status in the region. In this context, Iran’s first domestically-made satellite launch demonstrate its independence from Russia and China in the space arena. Moreover, developing countries such as Iran, demand that the activity in outer space should not be restricted to any states. Due to Iran’s future challenges regarding an increase in the competition in outer space, the important acquisition of this paper is the active presence of Iran in space activities in order to resolve threats. Subsequently, following the analyses of Iran’s space activities’ status and the importance of space competition, this paper aims to answer the following question: what kinds of coercions in outer space threaten Iran’s national security?

Transitional justice oversees inclusive and comprehensive measures. This doctrine is utilized in order to offset the deep social split in societies that are a victim of gross violations of human rights or humanitarian law principles. Transitional justice is also applied to repair theside-effects arising from systematic widespread of injustice that has been imposed on people. Application of a wide and inclusive concept of transitional justice is the right and responsibility of the members of the international community, and should be based on the principle of good faith and away from any political considerations or national interests. In order to avoid the international responsibility, the right of establishment should not be abused. All members of the international community are required to actively cooperate for the establishment and popularization of the benefits resulting from transitional justice for the victims of gross violations of human rights, with good faith and away from political or economic motives. The international community should also be held responsible in the event of a violation of the aforementioned principles.

In our current era, the international community understands the importance of democracy, and is evolving alternative theories in order to protect the interests of every state. Under the shadows of powerful states, political approaches, democratization, and the rights approach (eg. human rights), transitional justice is used to ensure the realization of democracy in third world countries.
Although the aim of transitional justice is to  accomplish this through a temporary solution for crises and a process based on identified mechanisms and tools, it is not necessarily a subset of post-war and does not violate Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter regarding the ban on the use of force and threats. The transitional justice approach implements its responsibilities by applying democracy to countries faced with conflicting strategies.
Therefore, the main question of this article is centered around the correct strategy for transitional justice in order to stop conflicts and respect human rights and humanitarian law. Undoubtedly, the answer to this question in terms of different strategies of each country is divided into short-term and long-term strategies.

Much of the failure of transitional justice stems from the theoretical aspects of it. In most countries, transitional justice has a state-centric approach. After a war, Governments are usually unstable and disintegrated, since a war destroys the basis and structures of countries after which different crises such as social, political and cultural occur. The rights of victims in negotiations for terminating the war and after war instructions are often ignored, and the importance given to these victims is not as much as the concern given to the parties in negotiations. Furthermore, the victims are not seen as an immediate threat for stability.
Caring for transitional justice and administering the rights of victims, not only brings about moral values and reinforces the reliance between the people and the state, but also it is of strategic importance due to a construction of long-term political peace. Accordingly, owing to the fact that the Afghan government has subscribed to various contracts and agreements, it should be held responsible for adapting transitional justice in Afghanistan. Instead of subsribing and starting practical plans, the government is reluctant to handle the past, and it seems that there is no political determination for adapting this process in Afghanistan.
The international society prefers supporting peace in order to support the transitional justice processes. The universal society that talks about the importance of transitional justice in other countries through accepting international agreements, has a legal and conscionable responsibility to guarantee that the Afghan government pays attention to millions of Afghan people who have suffered in war and does not ignore them. Besides, the urban society of Afghanistan should improve the capacity of institutions, especially the coordination of transitional justice, and try to build an active and national urban society with geographical expansion of institutions supporting transitional justice in all over the world. In addition, it should try to improve the accountability politics in order to hinder violence. Therefore, the question raised in this research is that why the process of transitional justice in Afghanistan has encountered a deadlock. To answer this question, aspects and challenges of transitional justice in Afghanistan are examined and the roles of institutions and urban society in advancing the transitional justice is assessed.

In this study, the existence and activities of political parties as a precondition for the establishment and activities of the parliamentary system in Iran has been examined. We have tried to explain the non-compliance between the statue and the role of political parties in Parliamentary systems in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In a parliamentary system, partisanship, resulting from the principle of diversity and conflict of ideas, is thought to have reached its highest order, so that the party apparatus and the government are fully integrated.In a parliamentary system, the formation, continuation, and survival of the government, and  also the political balance in the community, are possible through the competition between political parties. Therefore, currently, the lack of strong and disciplined political parties in the Islamic Republic of Iran is considered as one of the significant limitations of converting our legal and political structure into a parliamentary system.

Transitional justice isone of the new concepts that creates a perspective on the evolution of international law in order to investigate human rights violations and follow up in order to achieve transition of a government into democracy and punish the perpetrators of human rights violators. This can be done by conducting a fair trial that can restore the rights of victims as much as possible.
Food security is one of the most basic human rights principles. Food security is one of the main functions of governments and different groups in terms of peace or conflict. Unfortunately, we are witnessing repeated violations inadvertently or deliberately. This is considered a humanitarian catastrophe in the global community. An exampleis the blockade of food for ethnic cleansing or in military conflicts. The this article focuses on the role of transitional justice in  promoting the realization of the right to access food for citizens. In other words, this paper argues that transitional justice ensures the right to food and proposes a way to prevent violations of basic human rights.