نشریه پژوهشهای زراعی ایران
سال شانزدهم شماره 3 (پیاپی 51، پاییز 1397)

Pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important bean types in Iran. Cultivation area of pinto bean is about 50% of the total bean cultivation area and more than half of the grain bean production belongs to this type of bean. Drought is the most important environmental stresses that affected agricultural production in arid and semiarid areas and reduced crop productions. About 90 percent of Iran located in arid and semi-arid areas where water stress in the plants is inevitable. In addition, 60% of bean cultivation area in the world are faced with drought. Quantitative analysis of crops growth under water limitation condition is a good way to identify genotypes differences in response to drought stress.
In order to study the impact of deficit irrigation on pinto bean genotypes, an experiment was conducted as split plot based on randomized complete block design, at Shahrekord University, during 2013. Main plot was irrigation regime (supply of 100, 80 and 60 percent of crop water requirement) and sub plot was pinto bean genotype (Taylor, Sadri, C.O.S.16, KS21193 (Koosha193) and KS21486). Seeds were disinfected with benomyl fungicide before planting. Planting was conducted in 30 plant m-2 density. Crop water requirement was calculated by FAO Penman-Monteith equation. Irrigation regimes were applied at V4 stage (4th three foliate leaf has unfolded) and continued until the end of the growing season.
Results showed that there is genotypic variation in stem, leaf and seed dry weight, leaf area index (LAI), leaf area duration (LAD), crop growth rate (CGR), relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate (NAR) and radiation use efficiency (RUE) in response to deficit irrigation. The dry matter accumulation of bean genotypes was sigmoidal shape and reduction in water use causes degradation of dry matter both in terms of the amount of dry matter and dry matter accumulation rate.
The highest RUE was recorded in KS21486 in supply of 80 percent of crop water requirement (3.21 g MJ-1). RUE changes to the reduction of irrigated water vary from genotype to genotype. So that, RUE of Taylor, Sadri and C.O.S.16 reduced and RUE of KS21193 and KS21486 increased in supply of 80 percent of crop water requirement condition. Moreover, RUE of all genotypes reduced in supply of 60 percent of crop water requirement condition. In fact, the amount of light absorption and biomass production reduced due to deficit irrigation. Under drought conditions, reduction in water availability decreases cell growth and subsequent reductions in leaf area index. Thus ratio of dry matter produced by the absorbed light is low and radiation use efficiency will be less. Drought stress reduced total dry weight. KS21486 had more rapidly seed dry weight enhancement rather than the other genotypes in the early stages, however Taylor and KS21193 had highest seed dry weight in all three levels of irrigation. Deficit irrigation decreased leaf area index in supply of 60 and 80 percent of crop water requirement condition compared to supply of 100% of crop water requirement condition. Maximum leaf area index in supply of 100, 80 and 60 percent of crop water requirement conditions were 3.1, 2 and 1.5, respectively. Average reduction of LAD in supply of 80 and 60 percent of plant water requirement conditions were 27 and 42 percent respectively. C.O.S.16 showed the highest CGR and maximum NAR and RGR, in supply of 100 percent of plant water requirement. In supply of 80% and 60% of plant water requirement conditions, KS21486 had the maximum NAR and RGR.
Biomass duration (BMD), LAD, LAI showed the highest correlation with grain yield, thus they are appropriate indicators to estimate grain yield under different moisture conditions. With the increase in leaf area index, leaf area duration and biomass duration, seed yield increased. To obtain more seed yield, the area of photosynthetic levels (leaves) and stay green must be increased to produce more photosynthetic products and allocated to seeds.

The study carried out to measure the impact of different tillage methods and the rate of crop residue on soil characteristics, yield and yield components of barley. Excessive traditional tillage and residue removal practices caused to soil erosion and physical, chemical and biological degradation. As a result, improved or new varieties of crops (such as barley) as well as the use of other inputs are not able to deliver their potential contribution. Recently, many concerned farmers have begun to adopt and adapt improved crop management practices that lead towards the ultimate vision of sustainable farming. The term Conservation Agriculture (CA) removes the emphasis from the tillage component and addresses an enhanced concept of the complete agricultural system; it involves major changes in many aspects of the farm cropping operation. Normally starting CA with reduced or zero tillage, it progresses to the retention of adequate levels of crop residue on the soil surface, then to appropriate crop/cultivar selection and rotations.
This experiment using a split-plot design based on randomized complete block with 3 replications was conducted at agricultural research station of Gonabad during 2012-13 growing seasons. Main factor was 3 tillage methods (conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT) and no tillage (NT)) allocated to main plots and 3 residue management (Zero (R0), 30% (R1) and 60% (R2) of residue retention) were assigned in sub plots.
Results showed that the highest level of potassium (K) was obtained from (NT) treatment and under this treatment the amounts of pH and EC were decreased. In addition, under residue management treatments the amounts of EC was decreased and the amounts of phosphorus (P) and K were increased. Furthermore, the nutrition use efficiency (NUE) of nitrogen (N), P and K, were higher in NT treatment in comparison with the other tillage treatments. Interaction effects of NT with 0% of residue (R0) had higher level of agronomic efficiency of nitrogen. On the other hand, different tillage methods and the rate of residue management had no significant effects on biological yield (BY), grain yield (GY), and harvest index (HI). The highest and the lowest level of BY were obtained from NT (8500 kg. ha-1) and RT (with 7470 kg. ha-1) treatments, respectively. The highest amount of BY (8398 kg. ha-1) were obtained from retention of 30% residue (R1) and the highest amount of GY (5224 kg. ha-1) from R0 treatment. The highest BY (9122 kg. ha-1) were obtained from NT retention of 60% residue treatment (R2). The highest of GY (3897 kg. ha-1) and harvest index (HI) were related to NT R0 treatments. Finally, change in tillage method from conventional to conservation (no tillage) had no significant effects on yield and yield components of barley. Moreover, increasing of crop residue had positive effect on increasing amount of P and K and decreasing of soil EC.

Amaranthus L. is one of the oldest food crops in the new world. Earlier studies have predicted that the grain Amaranthus L. was domesticated in America. This crop has about 60 species of annual flowering plants distributed throughout the world’s temperate and tropical regions. Three species of Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus L., A. cruentus L. and A. caudatus L.) were domesticated in the new world, but spread to the old world where they became important crop plants. These crops have potential for higher nutritional value, better adaptability to various ecological zones, and better resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses than most other staple crops. Amaranthus is one of the native plants of Africa that in addition to the relative tolerance to drought, have high forage production potential.
The experiment was conducted at the Karaj research station belongs to Seed and Plant Improvement Research Institute of Iran during the spring of 2016. This research located at 320 34' N, 280 32' S, the soil type was sandy loam. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four blocks in split plots factorial method. Treatments included as three varieties of Amaranth consists of Loura, Cim and Kharkovski and two harvest times which were initiation and the end of flowering. All amaranth varieties belonging to species A. Hypochondriacs L., Plots consisted of six rows with 6-meter length, between and within row spacing were 0.6 and 0.1 meter, respectively. Soil was prepared in early bloom and seeds planted on the firmed bed at 1-2 cm depth in mid-May. Fertilization, Irrigation, weed and insect control were followed like the other leafy forage crop. Ten randomly selected plants were collected at the harvesting time to measure growth parameters consisting, plant stems, height and diameter, leaf to stem rate and tiller per plants. Two middle rows were used for the yield determinations. Dry weights were recorded after drying the fresh forage at 650C in the oven for 48h. Analysis of variance for all traits was done by the MSTAT-C software and for mean comparison used Duncan’s multiple range tests.
Analysis of variance for all traits was done by the MSTAT-C software and for means comparison used Duncan’s multiple range tests. The results showed significant difference in cultivars fresh and dry forage yield but there was not any difference between harvest time and interaction effects. The means comparison showed that the Loura white 161.0 cm had the maximum stem length, Cim and Kharkovski whit 155.0 and 146.9 cm ranked in next categories. The maximum stem diameter equal 20.6 mm belongs to Kharkovski cultivar in class one and two-other cultivars stem diameter were 16.9 and 16.8 mm and placed in class b.
The results showed that the Loura amaranth variety was superior to the other two varieties. This variety had 150 cm stem height, 14.5 mm stem diameter, 1.4% leaf to stem ratio, 4.72 tillers per plant and it can produce 90.30, 13.05 tons per hectare fresh, dry forage yield tow cuts, and 111 days growth duration. The ccomparison of different harvesting times showed that harvesting at flowering initiation was better than the end of flowering. Comparing the amount of forage produced, showed that cutting at flowering initiation was better than cutting after the end of flowering. The growth duration of harvest at flowering initiation was 23 days less than harvest after the end of flowering. In terms of management and of having many opportunities to prepare the ground for the next crop, this issue is of tremendous importance.

Drought stress and Zn deficiency are important factors affecting the quantity and quality of wheat. Zn deficiency reduces photosynthesis and disorders protein synthesis that the consequence of such process is the gathering of amino acids and amides, and disordering of carbohydrates metabolism. Besides, in such a condition, the length of plants and the size of leaves reduce due to changes in Auxin metabolism, especially Indole Acetic Acid (IAA). Drought stress reduces leaf size, cell division, plant growth, amount of photosynthesis, protein synthesis and chlorophyll content. Balance of plant hormones is affected by both of these factors. Among the compounds with zinc element, Zinc oxide is known from the US Food and Drug Administration as one of the safest and most integral components of Zinc. Nanoparticles have attracted much attention for their distinct characteristics that are unavailable in conventional macroscopic materials. Obviously, increasing of zinc availability and reducing of drought effects can play an effective role in improving the present situation.
The present study was carried out using split plot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Two factors of drought stress (irrigation at 90% of field capacity as non-stress condition, irrigation in 75% of field capacity as medium stress and irrigation in 50% of field capacity as severe stress) and application of zinc element (without treatment, spraying of 5 and 10 ppm of Nano Zinc Oxide and Zinc Oxide) were examined as factors of this study. In this study, parameters of Indole acetic acid, Abscisic acid, Gibberellic acid, Tryptophan, Amount of Zinc, Chlorophyll index, Protein, Total dry matter, Phytic acid, Proline, and Yield were measured.
Results of variance analysis of field data revealed that zinc element application in stress conditions could improve a number of parameters of this study. The interactions between drought and zinc on indole acetic acid, abscisic acid, gibberellin, zinc element values, chlorophyll index, protein, phytic acid at one percent probability level and total dry matter content at five percent probability level were significant. Application of nano-zinc oxide in 75% and 50% of field capacity, as well as non-application of Zinc in these conditions caused optimal changes in plant hormones, chlorophyll, protein, economic performance and proline. Application of zinc oxide increased 13.4 and 17.43 percent in the amount of indole acetic acid and gibberellin, while the use of zinc oxide reduced the acidity of 51.9 percent of abscisic acid under 90% field capacity. Zn content increased in seed from 1.13 to 1.83 mg kg and reduction of phytic acid from 19.2 to 16.6 percent under severe drought stress. Application of 10 ppm nano-zinc oxide showed a decrease in the negative effects of drought stress and improved quality of wheat.
As a general conclusion, it can be acknowledged that drought stress with effect on plant hormones, decreased the growth of shoot which causes reduced plant dry matter and plant yields. The use of zinc could increase the proline production and prevented chlorophyll degradation that causes reduced the effects of water stress and improved plant growth conditions. As a final result, these changes in Zinc application conditions could improve dry matter yield and economic yield.

Changes in water and nitrogen amounts cause different physiological reactions in plant. These changes are created for respond to stress in order to reduce or eliminate the stress effects. Improper management of water and nitrogen are main growth limiting factors of maize. The proper reaction of maize to nitrogen which leads to higher yield, is reason the use excessive amounts of nitrogen fertilizers. Nitrogen losses are the results of high nitrogen usage. The new irrigation methods, such as deficit irrigation, play important roles in preventing leaching and nutrients maintenance in root zone. Under water deficit conditions, nutrients absorption decreases, therefore fertilizer recommendation should be done according to existing water conditions. The study of physiological reactions of maize to different amounts of water and nitrogen helps to estimate accurately the crop need for water and nitrogen. Therefore, this research was conducted to evaluate the role of water and nitrogen in causing physiological changes in maize leaves.
This experiment was done at Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran, during 2014 and 2015. The experiment was conducted as split plot. Main-factor was four irrigation levels included supplying 60, 80, 100 and 120% water requirement (I60%, I80%, I100% and I120%, respectively), and sub-factor included four nitrogen levels 40, 70, 100 and 140% (N40%, N70%, N100% and N140%, respectively) recommended amount based on the soil test. To calculate water requirement, Penman-Monteith-FAO equation was used. For each treatment the amount of water was measured. Partitioning of nitrogen at times the two-leaf stage, the six-leaf stage and before tassel emergence was equal. Leaf physiologic traits included relative water content, stomatal conductance, temperature, photochemical efficiency of PSІІ, SPAD, photosynthesis rate, transpiration rate and photosynthetic water use efficiency measured. Statistical analysis and mean comparisons were performed using SAS software and LSD method.
Air temperature during the crop growth in 2014 was less than 2015. Therefor leaf area index (4.9 and 4.5 in 2014 and 2015, respectively), relative water content (82.5 and 70.4%) and stomatal conductance (47 and 23 mmol.m-².s-1) in 2015 were less than 2014, but leaf temperature was higher (38.6 and 43.1 ºC). In 2014, PS ІІactivity was not affected by irrigation treatment, but negative effect of deficit irrigation on PSІІ activity was observed in 2015. In 2014, there was no significant difference between stomatal conductance in I120% and I100% (60.8 and 57.3 mmol.m-².s, respectively), but mild and severe deficit irrigation caused to significant reductions in stomatal conductance (43.5 and 26.5 mmol.m-².s, respectively). In 2015, stomatal conductance in I100% was 26.3 mmol.m-².s-1 significantly less than from I120% (34.7 mmol.m-².s). The lowest stomatal conductivity was recorded with mild and severe deficit irrigation in 2015 (14.9 and 15.8 mmol.m-².s-1 respectively). In 2014, leaf temperature in I100%, I80% and I60% (0.78, 1.70, and 1.84ºC respectively) was higher than I120%. These values were obtained 2.66, 3.66 and 4.60ºC in 2015 respectively. In I120%, I100%, I80% and I60%, CO2 stabilization rate was 29, 26.1, 17.7 and 14.9 μmol.m-².s-1, respectively. Nitrogen consumption up to crop requirement had a positive effect on photosynthesis rate. The photosynthesis rate in N140%, N100%, N70% and N40% was 25.5, 23, 20.6, and 18.6μmol.s respectively. Mild and severe deficit irrigation reduced transpiration rate. However, in I100%, using 70% nitrogen demand, transpiration rate was significantly higher than other nitrogen levels. By reducing water amount and less nitrogen consumption, photosynthetic water use efficiency was decreased. Nitrogen deficiency in I120% and I100% reduced photosynthetic water use efficiency. In I80%, photosynthetic water use efficiency reaction to different nitrogen levels was varied. In I60%, effect of different nitrogen levels was not significant.
Leaf area, relative water content, stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and transpiration rate were reduced with increasing of water deficit. Increasing of nitrogen up to the crop requirement led to increased leaf area and photosynthesis rate. Under adequate water condition, nitrogen consumption up to recommended amount led to increased photosynthesis rate, decreased transpiration rate and finally improved photosynthetic water use efficiency. But under deficit irrigation, there were no significant differences in traits among nitrogen levels.

Suitable tillage methods and planting cover crops are such factors in sustainable agricultural systems, which play an important role in the sustainability of agricultural production systems. The benefits cover crop can be referred improvement of soil fertility, chemical properties of soil, increasing of soil organic matter and biodiversity and finally increasing of crop yields.
This study was conducted at Agricultural Research Station of Bu-Ali Sina University in Dastjerd village near the city of Hamadan located in the west of Iran during 2015 growing season. A factorial layout based on a randomized complete block design with three levels of tillage practices (no-tillage (NT), minimum tillage (MT) and conventional tillage (CT)) and two levels of cover crops (with (UC) and without (NC) canola as a cover crop) was conducted. Treatments were replicated in three times. After harvesting main crop (sunflower), selected soil quality indicators including organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and available potassium were measured. In addition, yield components of sunflower including percentage of unfilled grain, grain weight, number of grain per anthodium, anthodium diameter, grain and biological yields were measured at the end of the season. The data were analyzed by SAS software. Means were compared using Duncan's Multiple Range test at P≤0.05.
The results indicated that organic carbon and macronutrients (NPK) of soil were the highest in MT × UC treatment. After the minimum tillage treatment, the highest amounts of soil quality indicators were measured in the treatment of non-tillage treatment and presence of cover crop. MT×UC treatment with 1.04% organic carbon was significantly higher than other treatments and the lowest organic carbon (0.56%) was measured in conventional tillage treatment without using cover crop. The highest amount of macro-nutrients (nitrogen (0.16%), phosphorus (24 mg kg-1) and potassium 430 (mg kg-1) were revealed at the MT × UC treatment. In comparison with the conventional tillage, the minimum tillage treatment increased sunflower grain weight by about 18%. NC treatment reduced sunflower grain weight by 19% compared to UC treatment (using cover crop). The maximum anthodium diameter (27 cm) was achieved at MT×UC treatment, while this treatment resulted in an increase of 55.5% in anthodium diameter compared to CT×NC treatment. The number of grain per anthodium was not significantly different between the two treatments of MT×UC and NT×UC. Minimum tillage compared to conventional tillage significantly increased sunflower grain yield. Sunflower grain yield was decreased by 53% in non-using cover crop treatment compared to UC treatment (using cover crop). The highest (1043.3 g m-2) and the lowest (715.6 g m-2) biological yield of sunflower were obtained in minimum tillage and conventional tillage treatments, respectively. Between cover crop treatments, sunflower biological yield in NC treatment was 10.5% lower than UC treatment. Minimum tillage with the conservation of residue helps to protect the soil surface and increases soil quality. Therefore, conservation tillage is one of the new methods for optimum soil use as the most important supply of food sources and can play an important role in increasing farm productivity.
In summary, the results suggested that the highest and the lowest sunflower yields were belonged to MT×UC and CT×NC treatments, respectively. In justifying these results, it can be said that planting cover crops, especially when combined with conservation tillage systems, improves soil organic matter and soil nutrient elements and increases sunflower yield.

Plant density is one of methods for increasing yield in ground unit. Recently cotton cropping in high density under ultra narrow row (UNR) were extended in cotton producer countries. Increasing plant density by planting in narrow row increases seed cotton yield. Cotton cropping in narrow row or UNR (row space is 20 to 30 cm) reduces evaporation at between two rows, therefore, it reduces water consumption and weed growth and also increases radiation use efficiency. In these systems (UNR), zero type cultivars are more effective and their efficiency is higher than common cultivars, due to lower growth of monopodia and sympodia branches. Therefore, survey of growth reaction, yield and morphologic variations of these cultivars in ultra narrow row is necessary. Hence, this project was carried out to determination of optimum plant density by planting at different row spacing in zero type and common cotton cultivars.
After soil preparation, two cotton cultivars (zero type cultivars) including Kashmar and Khorshid with Khordad and Varamin cotton cultivars (as control) were planted in rows space 20, 40 and 60 cm and 20 cm on row. This experiment was carried out as factorial layout base on randomized complete block design with three replications at Agriculture and Natural Resource Research Station of Kashmar during 2014-2015. Irrigation was carried out by using of tape (under pressure irrigation system) with 20 cm dripper distance and 4 liters per hour discharge.
The measured parameters were plant height, leaf number and area, number of monopodia and sympodia branches per plant, number of boll per each of monopodia and sympodia branches, boll weight and seed cotton yield. Analysis of variance and correlation between traits were carried out using MSTATC and Excel and means were compared with least significant difference (LSD) test.
The results showed that, a significant different was observed between cultivars in related with plant height in two years. So that Kashmar cultivar had the highest plant height in two years. Reduction of row spacing, increased significantly plant height only in first year. The highest and the lowest plant height belonged to Varamin and Kashmar cultivars, respectively. Number of monopodia and sympodia branches were different among cultivars and this variation was significant. In each year, zero type (cluster) cultivars (Kashmar and Khorshid) had more monopodia and sympodia branches than common cultivars (Khordad and Varamin). With increasing row spacing, number of sympodia branches increased in zero type cultivars rather than Varamin and Khordad cultivars. Results also showed that there was significant different among cultivars relevant to leaf number and area per plant. So that these traits were less in cluster cultivars than common cultivars. The highest and lowest leaf number per plant belonged to Khordad and Kashmar cultivars, respectively. Row space had no significant effect on leaf number and area per plant. However, the leaf number and area were more in 40 cm treatment. In the first year, there was no significant different among cultivars in related with boll number per plant, but the effect of row space on this trait was significant. In the second year, a significant different was observed among cultivars and also row spacing relevant to this traits. The number of boll per plant were more in common cultivars than cluster cultivars. Also increasing row space increased boll number per plant. A significant different was observed among cultivars only in the first year. The highest and lowest yield belonged to Kashmar and Khorshid cultivars, respectively. In both years, planting in narrow rows (20 cm treatment) significantly increased seed cotton yield. For instance, the mean of yields were about 7660 kg ha-1 and 9155 kg ha-1 in the first and second year, respectively. Seed cotton yields were 3462 kg ha-1 and 4702 kg ha-1 in the first and the second years, respectively. The highest increasing yield of planting at the highest density with 167%, 86% 136% and 59% were observed in Kashmar, Varamin, Khorshid and Khordad cultivars, respectively.
In the intensive agricultural systems, we need to use of favorable cotton cultivars that are proper especially for machinery harvest. These cultivars must to be with the lowest lateral growth of vegetative and reproductive branches. In this study, Kashmar and Khorshid cultivarswere as a zero type cotton cultivars that are suitable for mechanization harvest. Results showed that these cultivars had better reaction to high plant density rather than common cultivars (Varamin and Khordad). In the ultra narrow row system, yield of zero type cultivars was higher than common cultivars.

Canola (Brassica napus L.) is an annual plant of the Brassicaceae or Cruciferae family and is regarded as an important oil seed crop in the world. Water deficiency is one of the most limiting factors for plant growth and production in dry regions. The positive effects of methanol application on growth and yield of C3 plants under drought stress are well documented. Methanol can rapidly metabolize to water and CO2 in plant tissues and can affect dry matter accumulation by decreasing photorespiration. The foliar application of methanol also can stimulate the methyltrophic bacteria, indirectly. Methyltrophic bacteria usually live on plant leaves and consume some of the methanol on the leaves and affect plant growth via the production of different plant growth regulators such as auxin and cytokine.
To evaluate the effects of foliar application of methanol on yield and morpho-physiological characteristics of rapeseed cultivars under rainfed conditions a split plot experiment was conducted based on randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. Experimental treatments were two cultivars of canola (Hayola 401 and Delgan) and four levels of methanol foliar application (control, 5, 10 and 15% of volume), respectively. In the stage of stem elongation, foliar application of methanol repeated 2 times with 10 days interval. At maturity, the plant height and number of lateral branches were measured. At the end of growth season, the plants were harvested by hand-cutting at the soil surface and subsequently, the number of pod per plant, number of seed per pod, 1000 seed weight, seed yield and aboveground biological yield of canola were determined.
The results showed that the effects of experimental treatments on plant height and numbers of lateral branches were significant. There was no significant different between cultivars for 1000 seed weight. For all of the studied traits Hayola 401 was better than Delgan cultivar. The highest amounts of 1000 seed weight, pod number per plant, seed number per pod, number of lateral branches and plant height were observed in treatment with 10% methanol. According to the results, the effect of experimental treatments and also the interaction of these treatments on the seed yield, biological yield and also harvest index were significant. The highest and lowest seed yield were observed in Hayola 401 cultivar treated with 10% methanol (1114 kg ha-1) and Delgan cultivar in the control condition (785 kg ha-1), respectively.
For all of the studied traits, the performance of Hayola 401 cultivar was better than Delgan cultivar. Although foliar application of methanol has positive effects on studied traits but the relationship between the dose of application and observed response was not linear and the highest amounts of seed yield, number of pod per plant, number of seed per pod, number of produced lateral branches and plant height were obtained in 10% (V/V) methanol. Therefore, application of methanol in concentrations higher than 10% is not recommendable.

Environment condition and appropriate planting date are the most important factors in producing optimal yield. Different planting dates lead to adaptation of plant vegetative growth period to different temperatures, daytime, and solar radiation. Therefore, it affects the development, production of biomass and ultimately plant yield. The effect of environmental factors on phenological stages of the plant makes the planting date differ from region to region and between genotypes in one region. The characteristics of the growth and performance of ecotypes vary from region to region that indicates interaction among ecotype, regions and environment. The interaction between genotype and environment indicates that selection of cultivars based on the performance of an environment is not suitable standard. It is better to evaluate genotypes in a wide range of environmental changes in different locations and times. For this purpose, the information obtained from the estimation of compatibility and stability of genotypes performance is a more reliable criterion for the development of cultivars and their cultivation and will increase the efficiency of selection and introduction of cultivars. In Khuzestan, due to the lack of suitable and recommended planting dates for fennel plants, decision making about optimal planting time is very important and it is one of the important factors for achieving maximum plant yield. Therefore, the present study aimed at evaluating three fennel ecotypes in different planting dates and determining the best planting time for this plant under Ahwaz climatic conditions.
This experiment was carried out as split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications at research farm of Agriculture and Natural Resources Science University of Khuzestan in 2016-2017. Seven planting date (22-Oct, 6-Nov, 21-Nov, 6-Dec, 21-Dec, 5-Jan, 20-Jan) were assigned as main plots and three ecotypes (Bushehr, Hamedan, Esfahan) were assigned made up of sub plots. Number of nodes, stem diameter, second internode length, umbrella number per main stem, umbrella number per sub branch, seed yield, essential oil percentage, essential oil yield and biological yield were evaluated after harvesting. The data were analyzed by the SAS statistical package (Ver.9.2) and means were compared with LSD test at the 5% level of probability.
The results showed that different planting dates had significant effect on fennel ecotypes. The maximum internode length and umbrella number per branch were obtained from the first planting date in the Bushehr ecotype. The delayed sowing date had a decreasing effect on morphological traits, so that the highest number of nodes in the main stem (6.7), stem diameter (1.97 cm), umbrella number per main stem (4.55) were observed at sowing date October 22. By delaying planting to January, the amount of traits decreased. The highest grain yield (2026.5 kg ha-1) was obtained from the sowing date of October 22 and Bushehr ecotype (1774.12 kg ha-1). The highest percentage of essential oil was obtained from sowing date of January 20 (46.4%) and Isfahan ecotype (4.27%). The highest essential oil yield of Isfahan ecotype was 67.66 kg ha-1, which had no significant difference with Bushehr ecotype (67.15 kg ha-1) and were in a group.
According to the results, the first planting date had the highest yield and components yield, due to the favorable environmental factors in the occurrence of the genetic potential of ecotypes. Also, with delaying planting date from October 22 to January 20, the percentage of essential oil reached the highest. This is probably due to the reduction of reproduction period and the occurrence of this period with increasing heat at the end of the season. Among ecotypes, Bushehr ecotype due to more adaptation to the region, as well as the highest grain yield and number of umbrellas is proposed as the most suitable ecotype for cultivation in the study area and if the objective is the production of essential oils, Isfahan ecotype is recommended for cultivation in the study area.

Pulse crops have a huge role in Agriculture and daily life. The mung bean (Vigna radiate L. Wilczek) is one of the most important pulse crops in the world. It is a protein rich staple food and contains about 25 percent protein. Producing higher potential yield in comparison with other crops, is one of the greatest feature of the mung bean crop. Also, it improves the soil fertility by fixing the atmospheric nitrogen. Water deficit affects different growth and development stages of mung bean. In this regard, choosing the landraces and suitable cultivars and nutrition and irrigation management, play an important role in increasing of quantity and quality of pulses and reduce of negative effects of various environmental stresses on plants. The present research aimed to study the effect of water deficit stress on quantity and quality mung bean traits, Parto variety under applied and non-applied of foliar application of nano-iron and manganese chelates.
In order to study the effects of water deficit stress on reduction of quality traits of Vigna Radiata (Parto variety) under iron and manganese nano-chelate foliar application, an experiment was conducted as split-plot management in randomized complete block design with three replications during 2013-2014 in the research farm of agricultural college, Tarbiat Modares University. To determine the nature of soil, the amount of mineral elements (nitrogen, iron and manganese), the percent of organic carbon and soil acidity were sampled from zero depth to 30 centimeter and from 30 to 60 centimeters of soil in the zigzag pattern. Experimental treatments in main plots were three levels of irrigation regime (optimum irrigation, water deficit at reproductive stage and water deficit at vegetative stage) and in subplots were 10 levels of foliar application (without foliar application, foliar application pure water, one in a thousand a nano-Fe chelate, three in thousand a nano-Fe chelate, 1.5 in thousand a nano-Mn chelate, three in thousand a nano-Mn chelate, one in thousand a nano-Fe 1.5 in thousand a nano-Mn chelate, one in thousand a nano-Fe three in thousand a nano-Mn chelate, three in thousand a nano-Fe 1.5 in thousand a nano-Mn chelate, three in thousand a nano-Fe three in thousand a nano-Mn chelate) at withholding irrigation stage. SAS software has been used to analysis data, the analyses parameters were including variance and means comparison have been compared by using the LSD Test at probability level of 5%.
The results showed that water deficit stress and iron and manganese nano-chelate foliar application were significant for the most of plant traits at 1% probability level. Among of water deficit stress levels, the lowest yield and yield components for most traits, stress at reproductive stage and the highest amount in control (optimum irrigation). Also, the highest yield and yield component was achieved from different levels of iron and manganese nano-chelate spraying at the vegetative and reproductive stage, especially in the vegetative growth stage, while control spraying (no spray) led to decreasing yield and yield components in plant. Also, interaction between two main treatments were significant for the most of the traits at 1% probability level.
It can be concluded that water deficit stress at the reproductive stage had the most effect on reducing grain yield, protein yield and yield components, and using nanoparticles had the highest rates of grain yield, yield component and protein yield. The effects of water deficit can be reduced by spraying of nano-Fe and nano-Mn chelated. Also, it was observed that reproductive stage is the most vulnerable stage of the plant to the water deficit stress. Stress in this stage causes protein reduction by the plant and seed filling period. Regarding the effects resulted from water deficit stress, it is possible that spraying nano-chelated iron and manganese can make the seed a rich source by stimulating growth and cell division and as a result, more amount of dry material is preserved within the seed by adopting more photosynthetic materials. Among nano-chelated elements, iron and also mixed with manganese had the most effect on the seed yield and other studied traits in this test. Thus, it is suggested that these elements can be utilized as a factor for removing or decreasing stress and also increasing the production efficiency in the plants.

Agriculture is responsible for food production and consequently food security in one hand but on the other hand is the cause of many environmental externalities. Synthetic chemicals and other environmental pollutants have increased these externalities in the form of soil acidification and salinization, emission of greenhouse gases, nitrogen leaching to ground water, and eutrophication.
Many attempts have been made to evaluate the impacts of such phenomenon on the surrounding environment of which ‘Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)’ (‘cradle-to-grave’) is the most comprehensive one.
Due to increasing use of chemical inputs in agriculture in Khorasan-e Razavi province and its consequent environmental effects, LCA seems to be an appropriate tool to quantify such impacts. The objective of this study was to assess the environmental impacts of important field crops production in Khorasan-e Razavi Province by LCA.
This study was conducted to assess the environmental impact of production of important crops such as wheat, corn, sugar beet, canola, tomato, potato, melon, water melon and cucumber in Khorasan-e Razavi Province. In order to evaluate the relevant environmental effects, LCA methodology in compliance with ISO14044 was used and two factors concerned to resource consumption and contaminants emissions were computed. In this regard, four phases, which are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation, were designed to assess life cycle index. To make the various inputs and outputs comparable, it was necessary to relate these data to a common functional unit, which represent the main function of the system. Therefore, all resource consumption and emissions was related to one ton of economical yield. Three main categories as impacts on environment including global warming, acidification, and eutrophication (terrestrial and aquatic) were defined. To compare the indicators, they were normalized. For the normalization, the indicator results per functional unit were related to the respective indicator results for defined reference area. Finally, an index called environmental index (EcoX) was calculated. Cronbach's alpha was used for assessing the reliability of questionnaire.
The results showed that the largest share of greenhouse gas emissions in global warming category was related to CO2. The highest and the lowest global warming potential per functional unit were found for canola (1342.01 kg CO2 equivalents/ one ton of economical yield) and sugar beet (27.25 kg CO2 equivalents/ one ton of economical yield), respectively. The maximum and minimum aquatic eutrophication potential per functional unit were calculated for canola (0.59 kg PO4 equivalents/ one ton of economical yield) and sugar beet (0.01 kg PO4 equivalents/ one ton of economical yield) with, respectively. The highest and lowest EcoX were computed for canola with 0.67 Ecox/ one ton of economical yield) and sugar beet (0.01 EcoX/ one ton of economical yield), respectively..
The results revealed that, agricultural production systems with high levels of economical yield do not always contradict with environmental safety. In other word, high yield in agriculture and environmental stewardship is not divergent. Therefore, one of the appropriate approaches to decline the environmental impact of agricultural production is to achieve higher yield per unit of area by increasing resource use efficiency. In order to reduce environmental effect and obtain an environmental friendly for production systems in Khorasan-e Razavi province, different ecological approaches could be proposed such as nitrogen application on the basis of crops demands to provide utmost uptake and consequently decline nutrients leaching, decrease acidification and eutrophication impacts, and decrease global warming potential.

Glycine Betaine has potential impacts on enhancing the tolerance of plants against various environmental abiotic stresses. There are two methods of increasing Glycine Betaine level in plants in which Glycine Betaine does not accumulate naturally, the exogenous application of Glycine Betaine and the introduction of GB-biosynthetic pathway into plants, via transgenes. When Glycine Betaine is applied to the leaves of tomato plants, most of the Glycine Betaine that is taken up by the leaves is localized in the cytosol which is significantly reduced adverse effects of abiotic stresses (Park et al., 2006). Even in non-stress conditions, there are several environmental factors (water scarcity between irrigation times, soil salinity, mid-day heat, etc.) that can affect the plant yield. This study tried to find the effectiveness of exogenous application of Glycine Betaine on tomato plant in non-stress condition.
The experimental was conducted in 2015 as the randomized complete block design based on factorial with four replications. Treatments included three levels of Glycine Betaine application level (0, 3, 6 kg.ha-1) and three times of application including planting, floral initiation and fruit set. 0, 3 and 6 kgha-1 Glycine Betaine applied with 200 lit.ha-1 water and applied with back sprayer. The experimental field was located 10 km southeast of Mashhad. Irrigation with 6-day interval was done to represent non-stress condition. Electrolyte leakage, SPAD number and Relative Water Content (RWC) were measured. Dry matter, leaf area, days from planting to flowering, days from flowering to fruit set, total fruit numbers, ripe fruit numbers, green fruit numbers, average fruit size, and total yield were determined during the study. Harvest time was determined by meteorological forecast and before the first freezing stress in fall. The data were analyzed by SAS software and the means were compared by Duncan.
Results showed that the times of application had significant effects on some measured parameters. Glycine Betaine application at planting stage led to increasing vegetative stage and delayed flowering time for 6 days. The highest leaf area (1464.4 cm2) was also obtained from the same application. Different times of Glycine Betaine application had no significant effects on total yield. However, using at planting time resulted in higher green/total fruit ratio. Evaluation the rate of Glycine Betaine application showed that the highest leaf area (1370 cm2) and the highest dry matter (1206 g.ha-1) were obtained from 3 kg.ha-1 application rate. Treatments without GB application resulted in the highest yield (74.7 ton. ha-1), but increasing the rate from 0 to 3 kg.ha-1, led to 94% increasing in green fruit numbers (8.4 to 16.2 respectively).
Exogenous application of Glycine Betaine showed different effects on tomato plants due to time and rate of application. The highest yield was obtained from control treatment (no application) (74 ton ha-1) and 3 and 6 kg.ha-1 applications, decreased yield 15 and 30 percent, respectively. However, the vegetative stage was lengthened and the numbers of green fruits was increased by 3 kg.ha-1 rate. It seems that if the growing season was extended, and enough time was provided to fruit ripening, total yield could be increased by low concentration of Glysine Betaine application up to 25% compared to control. But high rate of Glycine Betaine may cause toxic effects on tomato and reduce the yield.