فصلنامه اندیشه دینی
پیاپی 42 (بهار 1391)

Argument from religious experience is one of the most important arguments for the existence of God. Contemporary philosopher and theologian, Richard Swinburne, and some of his followers, believe that justification of religious experience is based on two principles, the principle of testimony and the principle of credulity, one of which, the principle of credulity, is criticized by some epistemologists as William L. Rowe. Rowe believes that since in perception, we can distinguish true beliefs from illusory ones by checking procedures, we can use the principle of credulity for perceptual beliefs, whereas in religious experience, since there are no such procedures, we cannot use the principle of credulity. The impossibility of using this principle in religious experience, as Rowe thinks, means that the argument from religious experience is not documented. This article, after formulating the principle of credulity, argument from religious experience, and Rowe’s criticism, tries to defend the principle of credulity against Rowe’s criticism.

Ibn Sina's analysis of the process of revelation is a fundamental one which had a strong influence on the later thinkers. He sees the rational soul as the criterion which distinguishes human being from others. He also sees the revelation as a kind of knowledge. So he must show how the soul can reach this kind of knowledge by its faculties. He says that revelation is not simply the descent of the angel or a dialogue between God and the prophet. It is the product of the ascent of the prophet's soul to the sacred realm. In this process, first the completed reasoning faculty of the prophet becomes attached to the Active Intellect and receives the general meanings. Then his imagination faculty becomes able to descend and make these general meanings as sensory and imaginary forms, keeping their original existence and their similarities. In this way the prophet can hear the divine words and see the angles. Another important issue in this relation is miracle. According to Ibn Sina, miracle is not restricted to the extraordinary acts of the prophets. Revelation itself is a kind of miracle. So miracle is one of the elements of the prophethood which can be analysed philosophically.

In this paper, discussing the position of realism and antirealism in meta-ethics, first we will explain different versions of moral realism. Then we will discuss Kant's moral teachings to determine his attitude concerning these versions. Moral realism and anti-realism has a strong relation to cognitivism and noncognitivism in meta- ethics. So we will discuss shortly moral cognitivism and non-cognitivism and different schools of moral realism and anti- realism and their differences. Finally by reviewing Kant's most important moral teachings, we will show that based on different meanings of realism we can put Kant in realist or anti-realist thinkers.

The present article is an attempt to explore the popular rule of al-Wahid in the systems that believe in the oneness of being in the light of the other rule which is the basis of those systems, namely, the rule of basit al-haqiqah kul al-ashya (reality in its simplicity contains all things). The conclusion is that with reference to the pure simplicity of the "Origin", which means comprehensiveness and representing all beings, there is no need to explain and consolidate the rule of al-Wahid in the traditional fashion. In the usual argument for the rule of al- Wahid, an opposition is assumed between 'unity' and 'multiplicity'. It seems that the idea of opposition between unity and multiplicity is rooted in overlooking the rule of basit al-haqiqah kul al-ashya. It seems that the latter is ignored by the systems other than those based on the oneness of being or reality. Accordingly, it can be asserted that giving importance to the rule of al-wahid in the same manner was equated with ignoring the pure oneness of being of the Truth. Now, since pure oneness removes the artificial opposition between unity and multiplicity, it undermines the validity of the rule of al-wahid based on such opposition. For, here the 'unity' in both the 'Origin' and the 'originated' is not opposed to 'multiplicity'. Rather, in the former, 'multiplicity' is in 'unity' and in the latter, 'unity' is in 'muliplicity'. It is due to this reason that for Ibn Arabi and Mulla Sadra, Breath of Merciful, which is the same permeating being in everything, is the only emanation, or rather, the first and at the same time the last emanated. In this context, the meaning of 'emanation' needs a fundamental change to appear as 'manifestation'. Moreover, in this regard, the meaning of real created and the congruence between cause and effect should be revised.

The act of creation has been mentioned in the holey Quran to remind the reader some secrets of the cosmos and God's power. The progress of medical science has prepared a better understanding of the verses of the Quran concerning the creation of man. In the Quran we can recognize six stages for creating of man: 1- The origin of man's creation from the soil (mud). 2- The genesis of man from the gametes (nutfa) which seems to be the same as fertilized Ovum (female egg). 3- The evolution of gametes into zygote (alaqa) which is the most important part of the beginning of human formation. 4- The start of the development of the basic components of the embryo to shape chewed meat (mudqa) which differs from part to part of the body. 5- The beginning of the movement of the embryo whose appearance has been completed. Quran refers to these two recent stages as the revolution of the chewed meat (mudqa) into bones and covering the bones by meat. The scientific discoveries of embryology concerning different stages of the development of the embryo can help interpreting the verses of the Quran in this relation, even though the language of the Quran is not a scientific one. 6- The breathing of the divine spirit into the embryo of the man which is done after its external creation has been completed and which makes and completes man's identity and spirituality in order to get such a status that the angels prostrate before his status. It is in this stage that masterpiece of God's creation is realized and the man gets a new creation which distinguishes him from all other creatures.

Recently, some comparative studies have been done regarding the interpretation of time from the viewpoints of Bergson and Mulla Sadra. In these interpretations, the issue of "intuition" in the philosophy of Bergson has been compared with the theories of "Substantial motion" and "Principality of Existence" in Mulla Sadra's philosophy to examine similarities and differences between them concerning the concept of time. Reviewing the meaning of "intuition" and "Substantial motion", along with analysing some concepts such as memory and matter, creative evolution, matter, power, will, space, life, morality and religion, we can realize that there is a deep difference between Mulla Sadra's and Bregson's interpretations of the concept of time and that their philosopies in general, are basically different.

Dharma is the most fundamental concept in East Asian religious thought that has its roots in Hinduism history. This concept mostly stands for law and Sharia in the Vedas and for virtue, justice, criterion, duty and legitimate action in the forthcoming literary epochs and texts. However, in Buddhist thought Dharma is a kind of truth in the functions and situations for the real world that could reply on the cause and the nature of human being's suffering and can operate as a cession and termination to suffering inclinationes in this world. Hence, the world in Buddhism is comprised of Dharmas that constitute the foundation of truth. In this paper, I have first devoted myself to the records, marks and elements of Dharma in Hindus religious tradition. Then, I have introduced the history, the different meanings, the variety, and classification of Dharma. Next, I have put forward the concept of Dharma in Mahayaneh and Hinayaneh traditions, and eventually I have examined and investigated different interpretations of these two traditions.