فصلنامه مطالعات حفاظت گیاهان
سال سی‌ام شماره 1 (بهار 1395)

Investigation the relationship between herbivores and their host plant has long been one of the critical areas of study in plant science research. Herbivores should find sufficient nutritional and mineral compounds to survive on the Earth. Elm leaf beetle is one of the most destructive pests among species of elm family. This insect feeds from elm plants during its larvae and youth life cycle causing crest distortion and many other physiological problems to the host plant. These problems in turn decrease host plant’s resistance to other pests and diseases. In this vein, effects of some minerals such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, in four host plants including Ulmus carpinifolia, U. carpinifolia var. umbraculifera, Zelkowa carpinifolia and Celtis coucasica , on larval development and survival of elm leaf beetle, Xanthoga lerucaluteola (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), were studied under laboratory conditions (26±2ᵒC, 65±5% RH and 16:8 L: D).
Material and Elm leaf beetle eggs were collected from the elm trees on the campus of faculty of natural resources at the university of Guilan, in north of Iran. Larvae were reared on different host plants in plastic jars and their biology and survival was determined. Some mineral compounds were assessed for the foliage of every host plants. Leaf nitrogen content was analyzed according to the technique introduced by Baker and Thompson. Phosphorus was measured based on Moore technique and potassium was determined by flame photometer based on Hanlon protocol.
Analysis of variance showed that there was significant difference between the four studied host plants in terms of amount of phosphorous, potassium and nitrogen. The highest and the lowest amount of phosphorous and potassium was observed in U. carpinifolia and Ta leaves respectively (F=22.56; df=8, 3 for phosphorous test and F=22.36; df= 8, 3 for potassium analysis). As for nitrogen, the amount of nitrogen is significantly higher in Azad treatment compared to other three treatments (F=168.98; df= 8, 3). In terms of survival and total larvae developmental time, first instar larvae which had reared on U. carpinifolia leaves developed into other instars in a significantly shorter time span, compared to larvae reared on other three host plants. It should be noted that larvae fed from Ta leaves did not developed into third instar; so for the fourth instar developmental time analysis only larvae fed from three other host plants were included in the analysis. In terms of pupal developmental time, analysis showed that the shortest developmental time was found in larvae reared on U. carpinifolia leaves (6.78 days) and the longest developmental time was seen in larvae fed from Azad treatments (9.32 days). As for survival of larvae, the result exhibited that larvae reared on U. carpinifolia leaves had a higher survival rate compared to larvae fed from other three host plants. Total larval developmental time of X. luteola was significantly highest on C. coucasica in comparison with the other three host plants used in the study. All larval instars showed the highest survival on U. carpinifolia and the lowest survival was found on C. coucasica. The results indicated that the larvae, which had fed on host plants with higher level of mentioned mineral, had shorter duration of development.
This research revealed that the mineral nutrition of host plants probably has significant effects on herbivore insects performance. It could be concluded that larvae developmental time and survival is highly dependent on the type of nutritional compounds which is probably due in turn to mineral compositions of the host plants. In other words, one can conclude that different kinds of minerals with different concentrations can probably be one of the main factors affecting developmental time and survival of larvae. It is suggested that more physical and chemical characteristics of elm tree be investigated and measured to achieve more precise result in the area of elm beetle larvae’s developmental time and survival.

From the floating aquatic plant species, duckweed (i.e., Lemna sp.) is perhaps the most commonly used in toxicity testing. As its name implies, it is a staple in the summer diet of ducks as well as other aquatic organisms. Actually, “duckweed” can refer to both Lemna sp. and Spirodela sp. (greater duckweed), although, it is usually associated with Lemna minor. The Lemnaceae (duckweeds) are cosmopolitan free-floating aquatic monocotyledonous angiosperms that commonly occur in fresh and brackish stagnant ponds and sluggish streams, mostly in tropical regions but also as far north as 60° and as far south as 40° latitude. Duckweeds are vascular floating non-rooted aquatic plants with a reduced root system and lack stems and true leaves. It has been speculated that the roots serve as anchors to keep the fronds right side up and to form the tangled masses, which are of some importance in dispersal and protection from water movement. They can reproduce both sexually and asexually, however, asexual vegetative reproduction is the more commonly occurring mode and, under laboratory conditions, a doubling in frond number and surface area covered can occur every 1.5–2 days. Duckweed can rapidly colonize open surface waters and develop a large biomass. These characteristics, plus its ability to accumulate inorganic ions favor it for use in wastewater treatment systems and makes duckweed an ideal model for studies on the metabolism of pollutants by aquatic macrophytes as well as for toxicity studies. They are very sensitive to many substances and are already used as convenient test organisms for toxicity evaluation of a number of pollutants including industrial and wastewater effluents, herbicides, heavy metals, surfactants and other common chemicals. The typical test end points are changes in the growth rate (expressed as frond production, fresh and dry weight and frond area) and changes in pigment content. For a few years biotests with lemna were used in some cases to supplement or replace the algal growth inhibition test. Green algae tolerate only a relative narrow pH-range, whereas lemnaceas are able to grow in a wide range from pH 3.5 to 10.5. This allows testing of samples such as sewage waters, which often show unfavorable pH-values, without previous adjustment of the pH. Triazines like terbuthylazine, a PS II inhibitor, and sulfunilurea like metsulfuron-methyl, an ALS inhibitor, and 3,5-dichlorophenole (DCP) which is mostly used in the production of the herbicide 2, 4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, are amongst the most widely used herbicides. Since they can be found in many environmental compartments, their fate in ecosystems and the characterization of their toxicity are to be determined. The objective of the study is the comparison of toxic effects of three xenobiotics with different mode of actions and different metabolic pathways by duckweed (lemna minor L).
The plants (Lemna minor), which had been purchased from the university of waterloo, Canada, in 2012, and surface sterilized with hypochlorite (0.1 molar), were used in the experiment. Plants moved to the media and growth conditions used for experiment at least two weeks before the start of the experiment. The nutrient solutions described by Steinberg were used. At the start of the experiment, 1 litter Steinberg medium was prepared. Then eight dilutions of the xenobiotics in nutrient media were made. A factor of 10 higher than EC50 values for the highest concentration and dilute to half the concentration 7 times has been used. The dose ranges for metsulfuron-methyl (EC50 = 1 µg l-1) were (0.08 – 10 µg l-1), for terbuthylazine (EC50 = 150 µg l-1) were (10-1500 µg l-1) and for dichlorophenole (EC50 = 3000 µg l-1) were (230-30000 µg l-1). The pictures of the plants were imported into an image-processing program as Photoshop, and the numbers of pixels of the plants were related to the standard surface area. The area specific relative growth rates of the plants were calculated. The relative growth rate (RGR) of Lemna minor as a function of the xenobiotics concentration was described with a sigmoid dose- response curve (log-logistic dose-response curve) and toxicity parameters as EC50 were determined.
The EC50 values which derived from the log-logistic fitted curves, showed that the metsulfuron-methy is the most toxic compounds than terbuthylazine and dichlorophenole and made the significant decrease in relative growth rates (RGR) of lemna at much lower concentrations than two other xenobiotics. Dichlorophenole was made less toxicity effects on lemna than others. The high toxicity probably is referred to the mode of action and detoxification pathways of xenobiotics by duckweed, more than xenobiotics concentration. Terbuthylazine is amongst the most widely used herbicides which is used as selective pre-emergence herbicide, applied generally in aqueous solutions directly to the soil, in many cases together with the spring fertilizers. The high toxicity of Metsulfuron-methyl can be referred to the fact that most plants cannot metabolize and detoxify this herbicide. Also slightly higher sensitivity of macrophytes when they exposed to metsulfuron-methyl compare to the terbuthylazine has been reported. It is necessary to more experiments be established on biodegradation pathways and also to determine if the physicochemical properties of xenobiotics play an important role in phytotoxicity.
Metsulfuron-methyl was more toxic than terbuthylazine, and terbuthylazine itself was more toxic than dichlorophenole as expected (see the EC50 values). This high toxicity probably is referred to the mode of action of theses xenobiotics and the fate (biodegradation) of these toxic compounds in duckweed more than their concentrations.

Wild oat (Avena fatua L.) is an important winter annuals weed and is known as one of the most important weeds in wheat fields (1). The ability of wild oats in yield loss of wheat crop is attributed to greater height and better distribution of leaves which reduces light penetration in the canopy (5). Competitive effects of oat and wheat affected by the density of both species. Resources will be divided between competing species with changes in plant density. Increasing plant density increased competition for light and affect other growth factors (4). In this study, the effect of different densities of wild oat was examined on the yield, and yield components in what.
Material and The experiment was conducted in 2010 at the Zabol University research farm in Zabol (61°29 N, 31°2 E, 450 m a.s.l.), south Iran in a sandy loam soil with pH 7.8. The experimental site is located in warm and arid region with mean annual precipitation of 63 mm and annual mean long-term average temperature of 23°C. The experimental design was randomized complete block with monoculture of wheat and wild oat densities at 7 levels (0, 10, 20, 35, 70, 140, 280 and 350 plants m-2), that were applied with three replications. Wheat crop density was constant rate of 400 plants m-2. The treatments were laid out in 2*2 m plots and wheat were sown at a spacing 0.2 m between rows and 0.012 m within rows. Wild oats were sown between the wheat rows. Adjacent plots were separated by a 0.5 m wide ridge and blocks were separated by a 2.0 m wide ridge. At the end of growth period five plants were sampled and the number of grains per spike, spike length, 1000 grain weight, plant height and number of leaves were recorded. At maturity plants were harvested from each plot, sun dried, threshed and weighed to determine grain and biological yield. Total N concentration in plant samples were estimated at the end of growth season following micro- Kjeldhal method. Data collected were subjected to the analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the significant differences between treatments were compared with the critical difference at 5% level of probability.
The interference effect of wild oats was significant on vegetative growth (plant height, number of Leaves, Spike length) of wheat at 1% level of probability (Table 1). Plant height varied significantly between different densities of wild oats and interference of wild oat until medium density increased plant height of wheat (Table 2). Among different treatments the least leaf number and spike length was observed at plant cultivated along with the highest wild oat density. The effects of different density of wild oat on grain numbers per spike and 1000 grain weight was significant (Table 1). Wild oat interference significantly decreased yield component in comparison with weed free condition. Grain number per spike and 1000 grain weight decreased by 69 and 21%, respectively in weed free condition in comparison with the greatest wild oat density (Table 2). The grain and biological yield of wheat significantly affected by the presence of wild oat. The grain and biological yield of wheat was 44 and 61% greater at weed free condition in comparison with the highest density of wild oat (Table 2). Reduction of yield and yield components as a result of weed infection has been reported by several researchers (3, 7). Kemp and Whingwiri (6) imputed yield loss at wild oat presence to plant structure of wild oat. Pourazar and Ghadiri (2) stated that wild oat increasing density at wheat farm reduced wheat grain and biological yield. There was significant difference among different densities on nitrogen concentration in wheat grain (Table 4), and wild oat presence significantly reduced nitrogen concentration in grains. Potassium concentration of wheat grain was greater at weed infection in comparison with weed free condition (Table 2). Light absorption significantly influenced by different wild oat densities (Table 1). The greatest and the least absorbed light were observed at weed free condition and 350 wild oat plant, respectively (Table 2). Intense radiation interference was due to wild oat leaves development.
The experimental results indicated that the greatest grain and biological yield were obtained in weed free condition. In the presence of wild oats the least density of weed produced the highest yield, and with increasing density of wild oat wheat grain and biological yield decreased linearly and significantly. Reduction in grain and biological yield at the highest density of wild oat was 61 and 44 %, respectively. Increasing wild oat density increased plant height and decreased number of leaves, spike length, number of grains per spike and one-thousand grain weight. Furthermore, increasing wild oat density decreases nitrogen concentration in grains and increases the absorption of light. These results suggested that wild oat density reduction to 35 plants m-2 may perform better grain yield of wheat under wild oat infection.

In order to identify of plant parasitic nematodes of Tea plantation, 340 samples of soil around the roots of Tea were collected from different parts of the provinces of Guilan and Mazandaran during different season of 2010-2011. After extraction, killing, fixing and transferring to anhydrous glycerol, the nematodes were mounted on permanent microscopic slides and nematodes identified by using light microscope equipped with digital camera, based on morphological and morphometric characters using valid keys. In this study, 24 species belonging 12 genera were identified. Aphelenchoides asteromucronatus and Paratylenchus holdmani are reported for the first time from Iran, Paratylenchus elachistus, described.

Common scab is one of the most important diseases in the potato fields caused by several species of bacteria of the genus Streptomyces. Symptoms and severity of common scab of potato caused by different factors, is different. The control also will be different.
About 500 samples of potato tubers with common scab symptoms were collected from different regions in Charmahal VA Bakhtiari province during 2009 and 2010. Isolation of causal agent was performed by standard methods, then the isolates were studied, using biochemical, physiological and nutritional standard test. Thus, the color of the colony and spore mass color YMEA medium after 10 to 14 days were examined. The Gram staining reaction was conducted by Suslow et al. (34). Aerobic and anaerobic growth test (O / F) in the presence of glucose was done by Hugh and Leifson (14). The isolates ability to use sugars (L-arabinose, D-fructose, D-glucose, D-mannitol, raffinose, sucrose, cellulose, D-xylose, rhamnose and mesoinositol) and amino acids were investigated by Faucher et al method (6). Toxic substances inhibiting bacterial growth were evaluated in culture medium malt and yeast extract containing potassium tellurite (10 and 100 micrograms per ml), thallium acetate (10 and 100 micrograms per ml), crystal violet (0.5 g ml) and phenol (0.1%) by Lambert and Loria method (23). Using lysosomes, total protein of 14 isolates representing of different phenotypes groups and two reference strains of S. acidiscabies and S. scabies, were extracted by Paradis et al. (29), and their diversity was investigated by acrylamide gel electrophoresis contain dodecyl sulfate (SDS) according to Laemmeli (22) The pathogenicity of isolates was evaluated by inoculation of radish and potato tubers Schaad et al. (30) method. Isolates were amplified by spore inoculation in the flask containing 100 grams of vermiculite saturated with nutrient solutions (20 g of sucrose, 2.1 grams of L-asparagine, 0.6 g of potassium phosphate and 10 grams of yeast extract per liter of water) and two weeks incubation was conducted at 30 C˚.
Collectively, 55 bacterial (Streptomyces) isolates were obtained that were divided into six phonotypical groups by standard phenotypic tests. Characteristics of isolates in the first group were very similar to S. stelliscabies and S. europaeiscabies, but were varied in a few characters. The isolates of the second group with the minimum variety were distinguished as S. scabies. Many characters of isolates in the third group were similar to S. acidiscabies. The fourth groups of isolates were similar to S. turgidiscabies and S. aurofaciens. The isolates of fifth group were very variable. The sixth groups of isolates were similar to S. griseus, but differed in some characters. In pathogenicity tests, 46 isolates were created disease symptom on radish seedlings, but among of 26 isolates inoculated to potato, 22 isolates were caused different scab symptoms. Total protein of 14 isolates from different phenotypic groups and two strains of S. acidiscabies and S. scabies were extracted and appeared on an electrophoresis gel by Laemmli (1970) method. Analyses of protein pattern were differentiated 14 isolates to five clads. Although, the isolates classified in one, two and three phenotypic groups were also classified in three distinct clads, but isolates in others phenotypic groups were shown variable patterns and did not place in distinct clads. For example, the reference strain S. acidiscabies with the 18E-2, 28-R, 12-R isolates belonging to a third phenotypic group, and reference strains of S. scabies with 15-E, 26-E and 22-R isolates belonging to the second phenotypic group, were differentiated in the first and second protein pattern groups, respectively. But isolates of 2-D and 16-4 (six phenotypic group) and 26-E-1 (four phenotypes group), were placed in the fourth protein group that were different with the results of the phenotypic tests.

Biocontrol of nematode agents in order to decrease the hazardous impacts of chemical pesticide application including problems of public health and environmental pollution is apriority. In this study, solid (Vermicompost) and liquid products (Liquid Vermicompost, Vermiwash and Coelomic fluid)of the earthworm species Eisenia fetida were tested against root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica in greenhouse conditions.
In this study, Solid (Vermicompost) and Liquid products(Wormtea, Vermiwash, Coelomic fluid) erthworms (Eisenia foetida) were tested against Meloidogyne javanica and also the effect of Vermicompost was evaluated on Pathogenicity of various nematode initial inoculum in two stage greenhouse conditions. Earthworm-based products (Vermicompost, Wormtea, Vermiwash and Coelomic fluid) were added to tomato pots. Various treatments of liquid as well as solid products and their combination were used in the greenhouse trial. The first Stage greenhouse experiment- Tomato seeds grown in 2 kg sterilized soil. In the treatments having Vermicompost, pots incorporated with 200 gr of this compost homogeneously mixed with soil. After plants reached at two leaf stage, to study the effects of liquid products (Wormtea, Vermiwash, and Coelomic fluid) they added to the pots (500cc) along with the irrigation water every week and after of 4 leaf stage, 5000 nematode eggs and larva inoculated to the tomato host plants. 90 days after nematode inoculation, plant and nematode growth indices separately measured and compared. The experiment conducted based on completely randomized design having four replicates. The second stage greenhouse experiment- Tomato seeds grown in 2 kg sterilized soil. In the treatments, pots incorporated with 200 gr of this compost homogeneously mixed with soil. After of 4 leaf stage, 0,1000,2000,4000 and 10000 nematode eggs and larva inoculated to the tomato host plants. 90 days after nematode inoculation, plant and nematode growth indices separately measured and compared.
The aim of the present investigation is to explore the impact of earthworm’s (Eisenia fetida) solid (Vermicompost) and liquid (liquid Vermicompost, Vermiwash, and Coelomic fluid) products on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica under greenhouse conditions infecting tomato. The first Stage greenhouse experiment -The root-knot nematode indices as well as plant growth parameters recorded. Results showed that all products could reduce the root-knot index, number of juveniles and gall index in greenhouse conditions. The best combination for controlling disease was Wormtea100% and the highest rates of growth is related to plants were treated with Vermicompost Vermiwash10%. Effects of Vermicompost on the Pathogenicity of various nematode initial inoculum showed, Vermicompost treatment caused increase in plant growth and also reduce nematode reproduction. In other words, Vermicompost could reduce the damage of nematodes. It is concluded that earthworm products have a remarkable potential as biocontrol agents against root-knot nematode. The second stage greenhouse experiment- the treatments , that have Vermicompost nematod, grew more than control (without Vermicompost). That tomatoes Incubated with 10000 nematode Vermicompost grew until end experiment but those treatment without Vermicompost (They had nematode) died at first of this experiment.
Treatments with Wormtea while controlling the nematodes in the soil, reduced root infected indices to nematodes like gall and egg no. and gall index in the root and at the same time, tomato growth indices in treatments having Vermiwash get increased which indicated nematode damage on the host plant has been compensated. Its worthy to say that the aim of nematode control is bring the nematode no below the economic threshold and in this context we can conclude that all these products could achieve reducing economic losses in the greenhouse conditions.These products have essential plant growth nutrients as well. Our finding support the effect of earthworm derived products on the plant growth indices by other researchers. According to our results, Vermicompost and Vermiwash resulted remarkable effects on host plant growth indices and on the other hand, integration of Vermicompost with Wormtea reduced nematode population indices in a great extent. About the effects of various earthworm-derived products on the nematodes not sufficient research has been carried out and most of the work is on the effects of VC against the nematodes.It is concluded that earthworm products have a remarkable potential as control agents against root-knot nematode and improving host plant health. In case we integrate these earthworm products, it’s possible to achieve the nutrient supply for the host plant as well as toxin for the nematode and approach for the organic food production.

Aphids are very successful insects of the superfamily Aphidoidea with the highest number of species are found in temperate regions. One of the most important aphid, is Myzus persicae, known as the green peach aphid or the peach-potato aphid, is a small green aphid. It is the most significant aphid pest of peach trees, causing decreased growth, shriveling of the leaves and the death of various tissues. It is also hazardous because it acts as a vector for the transport of plant viruses, such as potato virus Y and potato leafroll virus to members of the nightshade/potato family Solanaceae, and various mosaic viruses to many other food crops. The green peach aphid is found worldwide, although it is less tolerant of colder climates and overwinters through its eggs, laid in trees of the genus Prunus. The aphid also benefits from the presence of greenhouses in these areas The common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psylloidea), is now the most destructive insect pest of cultivated pistachio trees (Pistacia vera Linnaeus) in Iran This pest occurs throughout the pistachio plantation region of the country and causes severe reductions in pistachio yields. these pests are controlled almost exclusively by pesticides; however, environmental contamination and resistance by A. pistaciae and M.persica to insecticides has lead to considerable efforts to understand the potential of biocontrol agents for the common pistachio psylla and green peach aphid control. Coccinellids have been widely used in biological control for over a century and are considered to be important natural enemies of pest species, especially whitefly, aphids, mealy bugs, scales and mites. Lady beetles belong to the order beetles (Coleoptera) are the Coccinellidae family. To achieve a successful biological control program, it is necessary to characterize the growth, stage structure, fecundity, and predation rate of the pest’s predators. Life table studies are fundamental to population ecology. A life table gives the most comprehensive description of the survivorship, development, and reproduction of a population. The collection of life table data for related species at different trophic levels in a food chain is a basic and important task for conservation and pest management. Knowledge of the life table of both predator and prey is necessary for the mass rearing and practical application of a natural enemy to biological control systems. However, most of the traditional female age-specifc life tables ignore the male population and the stage differentiation. They cannot take into account the variable predation rate amon stages and the predation rate of the male. They cannot take into account the variable predation rate among stages and the predation rate of the male. To take the variable developmental rates among individuals and both sexes into consideration Chi and Liu developed an age-stage life table theory Because variation in developmental rate among individuals and between sexes in a natural population is a normal occurrence an age-stage structured model helps take the variation in the predation rate and the survival rate of individuals of the same age but different stage into consideration. The intrinsic rate of increase (rm) is a useful statistic for describing population growth rates. Estimates of rm have been used to assess the potential effectiveness of natural enemies. The predation activity of larvae and adult of Oenopia conglobata as a predator of aphids and psyllids of forest, fruit and crop plants has been reported from the most regions of Iran. Due to widespread of lady beetle, O. conglobata and its useful role in controlling of aphids, probably its conservation, rearing and its release can be useful in integrated pest management programs. This study provides information for understanding the primary potential of a native predator of the common pistachio psylla and green peach aphid. Obtaining knowledge about this species and other psyllid and aphids biocontrol agents will help extension officers to reduce chemical applications against the psyllid and aphid. This paper describes the relationship between the predatory ladybird, O. conglobata contaminate and common pistachio psylla and green peach aphid. In this article, we use the age-stage, two-sex life table theory to analyze the life history of O.conglobata with feeding on M.persica and A. pistaciae .The temperature threshold for development and thermal requirement for preimaginal development, food consumption and prey preference were determined under controlled conditions. Also, the reproductive responses and rm of this .ladybird on psyllid and aphid nymphs were quantified.
Adults of O. conglobata contaminata were collected from gardens of peaches and apricots around Isfahan in June 2011 and transferred to the laboratory of Biological Control Research Institute Isfahan, Iran. The initial population of aphids on plants of pepper from the Department of Plant Ecology Laboratory of Virology, University of Shiraz and transferred to Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan. The experiment was performed under laboratory conditions (i25±1oC 55±5 RH and 16:8 L: D). A cohort with about 100 eggs

Maize (Zea mays. L.) is an important food and feed crop of the world. Maize is the third most important cereal crop of Iran after wheat and rice. About 60% maize is grown in irrigated and 36% in rain fed areas of Iran and other country of Asia. Basically it is a tropical plant but at present it is being cultivated extensively with equal success in temperate, tropical and sub tropical regions of world. Crop density is one of the usage tools in sustainable agriculture at integrated weed management. Also weed species response varie according to density of species in agricultural ecosystems. The purposes of this study were to investigate cooperation of species (weeds and crop) was applied in the field at five stages to determinate (1) evaluation some physiological indices of plant species in different levels of irrigation (2) changes of total dry matter of species in different levels of irrigation in field conditions and (3) survey affect of different levels of irrigation on growth indices of species in corn field.
Material and Because of the importance of plant species can absorb water, irrigation water and soil and water quality and maintain their role in the determination of competition within and between plants a field experiment was conducted based on interval mapping at the Agronomy Research Field of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran (Lat 36°15' N, Long 59°28' E; 985 m Altitude) during 2009. Treatments consisted of four levels of irrigation (610, 730, 880 and 1230 mm) and two levels of weed control (complete control and without control). Weed sampling was done at 5 stages including first, middle and end of critical period weed control and at Maturity and 2 weeks after that then all weed species counted, species identified, leaf area and dry matters of samples were measured. Total Dry Matter calculated from integral of Crop Growth Rate (g.m2.day-1) in period of growth. TDM= a/1 * (exp (-c * t)) and CGR= (a* b * c * (exp (-c * t))) / (1 b * (exp (-c * t))) ^ 2. That a is TDM of point in asymptote of curve, b is rate of achieve to asymptote, c is crop growth rate, t is time.
The results showed that in different levels of irrigation the weed species were different. The coefficients of inter and intra species competition for corn and weeds had high correlation with level of irrigation. At all species, the highest and lowest coefficient of intra species competition, respectively, related to the nightshade (3/66) in irrigation and Common lambsquarters 1230 mm (408/0) in irrigation was 730 mm.
By increasing the amount of irrigation water rates increased in proportion to the amount of dry matter production of maize. In the treatment of uncontrolled weed dry matter production of maize compared to the control (weed control) showed a 29% reduction in the maximum amount of irrigation water has had all the species with the highest amount of dry matter production. The highest growth rate in the treated corn irrigation lowest, compared to other treatments (47/53 g / m2 / day), and the average amount of irrigation water, growth rate (80/19 g / m2 / day) had the lowest. In general, application of high levels of irrigation is suitable for crops at absence of other species. In conclusion, increasing the irrigation at complete control to a certain extent, leading to increased production and more than that would not.
According to the results, increasing of irrigation at complete control reduced coefficient of intra species competition corn. Increasing relative density of corn leads to negative coefficient of intra species competition on the dry matter. So increasing density of corn is positive factor at presence of other species and availability of irrigation. High density of species, tend to highest (nightshade at irrigation treatment of 1230 mm) and low density of species tend to lowest (Common lambsquarters at irrigation treatment of 730 mm) coefficient of intra species competition respectively among weeds. Also increasing irrigation leads to increasing dry matter of corn. Maximum of corn CGR was in irrigation treatment of 630 mm. We concluded that in this experiment, effects of different levels of irrigation on Physiological Indices consist of TDM of weeds and crop, CGR of species was studied in different controls of weeds.

Increase of world population, lack of food sources, and need for food security, protection of agricultural products against losses, drought, pests, and diseases, all seems to be necessary more than ever. During the years, grains have been the main food of humans, especially wheat, barley, rice, and corn. So production and storage of these products is important for societies. One of the main problems in this field is protecting the grains in stores until consuming or planting them again. Annually, over hundreds of millions tons of grains are lost by pests present in stores and not observing the scientific principles of storing. Control of insects and pests during storage as a destructive factor of stored products by harmless methods is necessary. There are restrictions in use of chemically control methods against pests in stores. Therefore in recent decades, physically control methods have attracted a lot of attentions. The purpose of using physically control methods is eliminating pests with minimum destructive effect on the environment. These methods directly affect on pests or change their living situations and create an unsafe environment for them. One of the tools that indirectly affect pests is ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves which can properly penetrate in air and porous areas. These waves are completely safe for the environment and cause no damage to the environment. Ultrasonic waves as new safe strategy in insect control can prepare unsafe areas for annoying insects and agricultural pests. The main characteristics of ultrasonic waves are safe for humans and environment.
In this study, experiments were carried out to assess the repellent impact of ultrasonic waves on one important storage pest, red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum Herbs). The system, which produces ultrasonic waves, includes distributor of ultrasonic waves, power supply, central processor, oscillator, display, Perry amplifier, amplifier, keyboard, and step motor. In this system, all parts are connected with each other. After doing pretests at different frequencies and times, frequencies of 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 kHz and radiation times of 3, 6, 12, and 24 h were selected as the most appropriate levels of variables. So these levels were used for doing the main tests on red beetle samples of flour. to study the effect of ultrasonic waves on red beetles, a factorial experiment was done based on completely randomized block design with three replications. To study the repellent and absorbent effects of ultrasonic waves, 20 red beetles were placed in 150 g flour into plastic tubes. The tubes have 10 cm diameter and 50 cm length. The odorless and flavourless oil was rubbed to the beginning and end of tubes in order to count the number of beetles. Because they trap into oil while exiting the tubes. The insects, which go toward the radiation source of waves, were as absorbent effect of waves. On the contrary, the insects that go against the radiation source and try to get out of flour were considered as repellent effect of waves.
The results of this research showed that ultrasonic waves can give red beetles away from the flour. It showed that insects tend very much to escape from the environment So they use all directions to get out of the environment. Analysis of variance showed that the frequency variable with the level of 95% probability independently had a significant effect on the pests escape. The results showed that in frequency of 35 kHz during 6 hours radiation intervals have highest repellency and escaping of pest from the nutrient medium with less energy consumption. The study showed that the application of ultrasonic waves in pests control can reduce the fumigant pesticides which are an important factor in environmental, food storage and consumers pollution.
The present study indicates that physically control method with ultrasonic wave is a safe, harmless, and accommodated method with the environment. It can be used in storehouses and grain depots. So this method can be placed in consolidated management program of pests in stores. To make sure about the proper and precise performance of this system, more researches are needed to be done in this field.

Trichoderma species are significant biocontrol agents against fungal plant pathogens. Some species produce a wide diversity of metabolites, antibiotics, as well as the toxins. Because of the intimate relationship between species of Trichoderma and human activity, there is a great need for the accurate identification of Trichoderma species. Accurate species identification is possible only through a combination of morphological and molecular methods. For identification of new Trichoderma species, most authors have used the combination of ITS and tef1. Many studies have been done on the taxonomy of this genus in the world. Nevertheless, the information about the diversity of Trichoderma/Hypocrea in Iran is scarce. Due to this, in discussing the use of antagonistic agents in biological control, the establishment of biocontrol agents seems to be the first and most important step. Thus, identifying effective native biocontrol agents to be used against plant pathogen agents in an area is of considerable importance. There are no reports for the biodiversity of Trichoderma species on saline and alkaline soils of pistachio orchards in Iran and the world. Because of the alkaline and saline nature of Iranian pistachio soils and the importance and applications of Trichoderma species in biological control of plant pathogens, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the occurrence and species diversity of Trichoderma isolates recovered from alkaline soils of pistachio orchards based on morphological and molecular analysis.
Soil samples were collected from a depth of 0 – 60 cm the rhizosphere of pistachio trees in Kerman province during 2010 – 2012. The samples were then transferred to the laboratory. Trichoderma species were isolated from soil samples using a selective Trichoderma medium (TSMC). The pH and electrical conductivity EC of each soil sample were measured. The morphological identification of Trichoderma isolates was performed based on macro- micromorphological observation, including rate growth and colony formation, presence or absence of pustules, pigmentation and sporulation, as well as conidiophores shape and branching, size and shape of phialid, conidia and chlamydospores on PDA and CMD media using valid Trichoderma keys. Then, the Trichoderma isolates were grouped in the preliminary experiment based on morphological characteristics and the resulted data from RAPD molecular marker using the primer A-5. The molecular identification of selected Trichoderma isolates was performed based on determination of the complete sequences of ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer regions using the primer set ITS1F-ITS4 and identified by submission to GenBank and the BLAST interface in TrichoKEY 2.0 to BLAST homology search.
In our present study, 194 soil samples were collected from pistachio orchards. The soils were near neutral to alkaline with an optimal pH range of 7.0 to 8.3 and the EC ranged from 1.5 to12.3 dSm–1. A total of 117 isolates of Trichoderma were obtained and purified. Isolates were identified to species level by a combination of morphological and genotypic characters. Before molecular identification, the Trichoderma isolates were grouped according to an examination of their morphology on PDA and CMD, using the following macroscopic and microscopic characteristics. Also, all isolates of each group were analyzed by RAPD molecular marker using the primer A-5. The RAPD-PCR profile analysis showed 16 different band patterns. The representative isolates of each profile was selected for DNA sequencing. As a result the isolates were identified as four species including T. harzianum, T. virens, T. brevicompactum and T. longibrachiatum. The results showed that more than 50% of the isolates belonged to T. harzianum and introduced as the dominant species in soil of pistachio orchards in Kerman province. Based on logistic regression analysis, although there was no relationship between the soil properties (pH, EC) and the presence of Trichoderma (R2=0.25, Pr=0.74, 0.26>0.05) but decreasing in numbers and diversity of Thrichoderma species in testing soils could be a result of alkaline conditions. To our knowledge, this study was the first report of identification and diversity of Trichoderma species in alkaline soils and pistachio trees.
A low degree of biodiversity of Trichoderma isolates was found in soils of pistachio orchards. In fact, acidity and alkaline conditions as well as environmental parameters such as soil temperature, moisture, pH, organic matter (OM) and nutrient content are factors that could affect on Trichoderma population, such as its presence, density, longevity as well as production of enzymes.

In the whole agro ecosystems, weeds had existence as unwanted plant that control of them is necessary. The competition between weeds and corn for moisture, light, nutrients during the growth season is induced reducing the quality and quantity of corn yield. Although the corn is high and powerful crop but is sensitive to competition with the weed and reduction of yield has been reported over 30%. Since the weeds are adapted to conditions, they are successful to completion and reducing the yield. So weed management is important in corn production. Chemical control has not been the unique and best way to manage the weeds and it reduce the sustainability of agro ecosystems. Although developing the herbicides, reduce the pressures caused by the weeds, but by developing rapidly the weed resistance to herbicides and increasing the environmental concerns and its high cost, today need to new, more immune and sustainable techniques for weed management. The main approach for sustainable weed management in an integrated weed management program is increasing crop competitiveness with weeds to reduce herbicide use. In this regard, the planting date, crop rotation, planting density, intercropping, planting pattern, fertilizer type, rate and application method are some of the most crop management strategies. Among the nutrients necessary for plants, nitrogen is the most nutrient in plant competition. Therefore, its application management plays a key role in reducing weed interference with crops and reduced herbicide use. Foramsulfuron herbicide from ALS inhibitors is a post-emergence sulfonylurea herbicide for the control of grasses and certain broadleaf weeds in maize. Unfortunately, these herbicides are also notorious for their ability to select resistant weed populations. Now, there are more weed species that are resistant to ALS-inhibiting herbicides than to any other herbicide group. In several cropping systems, ALS-inhibiting herbicides were used repeatedly as the primary mechanism of weed control. These herbicides exert strong selection pressure because of their high activity on sensitive biotypes at the rates used and because of their soil residual activity. So, the primary objective of this study was to determine the effect of some crop management strategies including sowing pattern and fertilizer application methods on herbicide optimizing and reducing foramsulfuron dose.
In order to evaluate the effects of corn sowing pattern and nitrogen application methods on optimizing and reducing of foramsulfuron dose, a field experiment was conducted as split factorial, based on randomized complete block design with three replications at the Research Station, of Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, in 2012. Treatments included, corn sowing methods (single-row with 75 cm distance, twine row as parallel on 75 cm width ridges sides and double row as zigzag on 75 cm width ridges sides) as main plots, factorial of nitrogen application methods (broadcast and band application), nitrogen source for fertilization was urea (400 kg ha-1), and foramsulfuron doses (100, 75, 50 and 0% of recommended dose (2 liter of commercial doses) applied at 4th corn leaf stage as sub plots.Weed density and frequency were recorded 10 days before corn harvesting and total weed biomass, corn biomass and seed yield were recorded at the end of the experiments per 1 m-2. Analysis of variance of data was carried out with SAS software and for means comparisons LSD (p≤0.05) test was used. Also The rectangular hyperbolic equation to describe the relationship between density and weed biomass and biomass and grain yield of maize was used
Evaluation of weed flora indicated that 6 weed species (including 5 dicot. and 1 monocot.) including red root pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.), lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.), field bindweed (Convolvolus arvensis L.), purslane (Potulaca oleracea L.) and barnyard (Echino clhloacrussgalli L.) were dominant species, with high evenness in the experimental plots. Amongst the mentioned weed species, the red root pigweed included about 74% of relative frequency and 80% of relative biomass of total weed biomass. Also results showed that the effect of sowing pattern on biomass and density of weeds and corn traits was not significant. However, band application of nitrogen versus broadcast application, increased weed density and biomass per m-2 25 and 10 percent, respectively and in the same way, increased corn height, kernel yield and biomass per m-2 7, 30 and 25 percent, respectively.
It was concluded that by using double row sowing pattern along with band application of nitrogen, we can reduced foramsulfuron dose nearly 50 percent.

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the world’s most important staple food crops. In Asia, it is the main item of the diet of 3.5 billion people. Rice stem borers are common insect pests in many rice growing countries. Striped stem borer (Chilo suppressalis Walker), belonging to Lepidoptera and family of Pyralidae is the most important rice pest in the Northern Iran. Stem borer larva damages rice stem and disturbs nutrient translocation from root to leaf. As the result, tillers in vegetative stage died, which is called dead heart. When larva infests generative stage, it causes empty panicle, which is called white head. Integrated pest management (IPM) practices for controlling the stem borers in Iran have not been fully implemented because of limited control technologies which are available. Farmers often rely on heavily insecticide application, although many insecticide applications are not effective. Therefore, many physical and cultural practices have been suggested, including adjustment of planting time to escape the plant from heavy pest.
The study was conducted in deputy of rice research institute in Amol, Mazandaran, Iran, during 2011-2012. The experiment was arranged in split plot design with planting time as main plot and cultivar as subplot and was replicated three times. Three planting times tested were the first planting time i.e. 15 days before farmers’ planting time, the second planting time (simultaneously with farmers’ planting time), and the third planting time (15days after farmers’ planting time). Six rice cultivars tested, representing three types of rice cultivar, Tarom and Kohsar (early maturity cultivars), Shirodi and Fajr (medium maturity cultivars), Neda and Nemat (late maturity cultivar). Rice seedlings were transplanted at 25 cm planting distance in a 3 m x 9 m plot size. Weeding and fertilization were done as recommended. No insecticide was applied. Dead hearts and white heads were measured on 10 sample hills on each plot after the end of growth germination and before harvesting respectively. Rice yields were measured on 80 sample hills (5 m2) on each plot. Sample hills were chosen diagonally. Effect of planting times and rice cultivars on striped stem borer infestation were determined by analyzing of variance using by two-way Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) and the mean difference were tested using Tukey test. Parameters were analyzed using the SAS software.
Analyses of variance showed that there was significant difference between stem borer infestation at three planting time, cultivars and their interaction. Stem borer infestation in the third planting time was significantly higher than the other two planting times. The most degree of dead hearts (11.9%) and white heads (31.23%) infestation were belonged to Tarom cultivar in the first planting time and Fajr cultivar in third planting time, respectively. The least degree of dead hearts (0.6%) and white heads (4.56%) infestation was observed on Neda in the first planting time. Also, grain yield of all rice cultivars grown at the first and second planting was higher than that of the third planting time. As earlier discussed, rice crop of the first planting time was heavily infested with stem borer during early vegetative stage. Although affected rice plants had been replaced and recovery of replanted tillers was good, they grew slower. Yield potential of all six cultivars was significantly different. Yield of a cultivar depends upon its yield potential. However, biotic and abiotic threats could reduce its yield potential. The present study showed that stem borers are potential threat when their population is higher as shown in the third planting time. The least mean rice yield (3.875 t/h) occurred in the third planting time compared to those found at the first and second planting time, i.e. 5.356t/h and 5.321 t/h respectively.
It is concluded that adjustment of planting time is feasible effort to reduce stem borer infestation because rice plant be able to escape damage under heavily population of striped stem borer but it depended cultivar and climate condition.

Intoduction: Saffron (Corocus sativus L.) as the most expensive crop has special position among export products of Iran. Currently, Iran is the biggest saffron producer and exporter in the world. Much of saffron in Iran produced in South and Razavi provinces (6). One of the problems in saffron production of these regions is weed control. Weed competing with saffron for water, nutrients, light cause reduction of product (3, 7). Among control methods of weed, use of herbicides is not common in saffron fields. The main reason is the evidences about herbicides damage. For example, Zare Hosseini et al (14) observed application of herbicides of Iodosulfuron methyl sodium Mesosulfuron- methyl Mefenpyr-diethyl destroyed grasses and broadleaf, but it destroyed saffron plant too. Haloxyfop- R methyl ester damaged grasses, but decreased stigma yield. This study aimed to investigate the effect of pre-emergence herbicides on weed population changes; the performance characteristics of saffron and saffron corms were implemented.
An experiment was conducted in a 4-year saffron farm located in Shahn Abad village, Zaveh city in Khorasan Razavi province in 2011- 2012. It was in a completely randomized block design with eight treatments and three replications. The treatments included six pre-emergence herbicides including Metribuzin 70% WP (850 g.ha-1), Oxyfluorfen24% EC (1 l.ha-1), Ioxynil 22.5% EC (1.5 l.ha-1), Etalfluorelin 33.3%EC (3 l.ha-1), Trifluoralin 48%EC (2 l.ha-1) and Chloridazon 80 %WP (5 Kg.ha-1) Desmedipham 15.7% EC (5 l.ha-1) along with weed free and weedy check. Herbicides applied after irrigation simultaneously with crust breaking. The measurement characteristics included the number of flowers, fresh and dry weight of flower and stigma, leaf dry weight, leaf length, corm number and weight of saffron, weed type and wet and dry weight of dominant weeds. Herbicide treatments after irrigation were performed simultaneously with Crust breaking in 03/11/2011. The flowers gathering were conducted in 03/11/2011. Sampling of weed was performed in two stages in 04/18/2011 and 05/05/2012. In the first stage adding to the collection weed, leaves of saffron are also collected and the length of them were measured. In the second phase, when corm growth was stopped, they were gather, count, weight, and divide by weight. Corms into 4 groups: 0 to 3 g, 3 to 6 g, 6 to 9 grams and 9 grams were divided up. The traits were analyzed by using software programs Mstat-c. Mean comparison carried out with Duncan test with 5% probability.
Result and The results showed that between herbicide treatments the highest number of flower (16.76 per m-2) and dry weight of stigma (75.67 mg per m-2) was belonged to Metribuzin treatment. The least flowers number (10.76 per m-2) and dry weight of stigma (13.67 mg per m-2) were observed in Etalfluorelin treatment. However there weren’t significant difference between Etalfluorelin and Trifluoralin for these traits. In the first stage of weed sampling were only narrow leaf weeds. In the second stage sampling was 7 species, 3 species of narrow-leaf and broadleaf species was 4. Most of the narrow leaf weed species were ovate goatgrass (Aegilopsgeni culata Roth.). Most broadleaf species belong to maltese star thistle (Centaurea melitensis L.). In the first stage of sampling Metribuzin and Chloridazone Desmedipham herbicides had the highest effect in narrow leaf weed control, respectively. Ioxynil had the least impact on this stage. In the second stage of sampling, the highest and lowest control of maltese star thistlewas observed in Chloridazone Desmedipham and Ioxynil respectively. Chloridazone Desmedipham and Metribuzin had the greatest impact onovate goatgrass and other herbicides for control of these species were not significantly different. Minimal impact on the total corm weight was observed in Metribuzin and Etalfluorelin respectively. The most reduction of corm weight was observed in Chloridazone Desmedipham treatments. Amiri et al (4) reported that Metribuzin application before and after the weed eruption is appropriate for broadleaves and somewhat narrow-leaves control. None of the treatments had adverse effects on corm weight producing with 0-3, 6-9 and above 9 grams but 3-6 grams weight of corm was affected. In producing corms with 3 to 6 grams weight the least adverse effect was observed in Metribuzin. The most adverse effect after no weeding treatment in producing corms with 3 to 6 grams weight was belonged to Chloridazone Desmedipham.
. On the basis of results, it seems to be due to the least amount of damage to saffron and its corm and the most control of broadleaf and to some extent narrow- leaf weed, the application of 850 grams.ha-1 pre-emergence herbicide Metribuzin is suitable for saffron weed control.

To now, more than 70 viral diseases have been reported from grapevine. Serological methods are regular diagnostic tools of grapevine viruses, however, their sensitivity has affected by seasonal fluctuations of the virus. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction provides significant improvement in detection of grapevine viruses. Extraction of high-quality RNA is essential for the successful application of many molecular techniques, such as RT-PCR. Extraction of high-quality RNA from the leaves of woody plants, such as grapevine, is particularly challenging because of high concentrations of polysaccharides, polyphenols, and other secondary metabolites. Some RNA extraction methods yield pellets that are poorly soluble, indicating the presence of unknown contaminants, whereas others are gelatinous, indicating the presence of polysaccharides. RNA can make complexes with polysaccharides and phenolic compounds render the RNA unusable for applications such as reverse transcription. Grapevine fanleaf virus is a member of the genus Nepovirus in the family Secoviridae. The GFLV genome consists of two positive-sense single stranded RNAs. The genome has a poly (A) tail at the 3´ terminus and a covalently linked VPG protein at the 5´ terminus. Several extraction methods had been reported to be used for identification of GFLV in grapevine. Some of them require harmful chemical material; disadvantages of other are high costs. Immunocapture-RT-PCR requires preparation of specific antibody and direct binding RT-PCR (DB-RT-PCR) has a high contamination risk. In this study, four RNA extraction protocols were compared with a commercial isolation kit to explore the most efficient RNA isolation method for grapevines.
Material and 40 leaf samples were randomly collected during the growing season of 2011-2012. GFLV was detected in leaf samples by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) Using specific antibodies raised against Iranian isolate of the virus (Zakiaghl and Izadpanah 2003). The RNA isolation protocols of Triazol extraction, high salt phenol-chloroform extraction (Rowhani et al. 1993), RNA extraction using silicon dioxide, Silica (Boom et al 1990), CTAB-PVPP extraction and a commercial RNA isolation kit were used in the study. In all protocols, 50 mg leaf samples were used. The quality and purity of the extracted RNA were determined using spectrophotometry. For purity assessment, the absorbance for the A260/280 and A260/230 ratios was taking in water. RT-PCR was performed using DetF (5´-CGGCAGACTGGCAAGCTGT-3´) and DetR (5´-GGTCCAGTTTAATTGCCATCCA-3´) specific primer pair amplified 1000 bp of the coat protein gene of GFLV. PCR products were run on 1% agarose gel containing 0.5 µg/ml DNA Green Viewer, and visualized under UV irradiation.
There were large differences in the amount of RNA extracted per gram of tissue depending on the protocol used. The commercial kit, CTAB-PVPP and TRIzol methods gave the highest yields in micrograms RNA per gram fresh weight (235-300 μg/g). In contrast, the application of Silica gave the lowest yield (11 μg/g). The high salt phenol-chloroform method gave a moderate yield of over 77 μg/g. In this respect, the CTAB-PVPP method provides the highest yield of RNA. RNA quality was assessed by three A260/280, A260/230 and ability to produce RT-PCR products. A260/280 ratios indicate the level of protein contamination in the preparation. The commercial kit, CTAB-PVPP, TRIzol and high salt phenol-chloroform methods gave RNA with very low amounts of protein contamination. In contrast, RNA isolated by the Silica showed more protein contamination, as indicated by the lower A260/280 ratios. A260/230 ratios are used to assess the level of contamination by polysaccharides and polyphenols. The high salt phenol-chloroform method yielded RNA that was contaminated with polysaccharides. In contrast, the CTAB-PVPP, TRIzol methods yielded RNA with very little polysaccharide. RNA preparations were further tested for quality using RT-PCR reactions. In PCR analyses, whereas traditional methods yielded amplification ratios of 40-88% and the commercial isolation kits yielded amplification ratios of 16%. The RNA from Silica, high salt phenol-chloroform extraction, TRIzol and CTAB-PVPP extraction methods consistently resulted in amplification in 40, 56, 60 and 88% of the samples, respectively.
The choice of extraction method depends upon the application in which the RNA will be used. Yield, A260/280, and A260/230 ratios are not good indicators of RT-PCR competent RNA. RNA should be checked for degradation. For RT-PCR, four extraction protocols of Silica, high salt phenol-chloroform extraction, TRIzol and CTAB-PVPP gave consistent product, and however, the last one was the most efficient method. The Silica extraction had significant RNA degradation, making problems in quantification with RT-PCR. Sodium perchlorate extractions had slight RNA degradation, low extraction efficiency, and cost substantially more than the Tris-LiCl method. The CTAB-PVPP method provided high yield and appropriate quality, consistent results for identification of the virus in RT-PCR. The high salt phenol-chloroform and TRIzol extraction were significantly cheaper than CTAB-PVPP methodical, but gave lower yields and were unsuitable for obtaining questionable results in RT-PCR.

Potato is a cool-season vegetable that ranks with wheat and rice as one of the most important staple crops in the human diet around the world. Weed control is important in potato production management, because without doing it potato harvest would not be cost- effective. Metribuzin (4-amino-6-tert butyl-3-methylthio-1, 2, 4-triazin-5-one), a triazine, is used as a selective herbicides for control of annuals grasses and broadleaf weeds inpotato. Its herbicide efficiency and its relatively low toxicity are such that it is widely used around the world. Replacing metribuzin with other herbicide that have the greatest effect on weed control in potato seems unlikely. The persistence of metribuzin in soil is defined as the period or extension of time in which it remains active. Knowing the case of herbicides is particularly important because, on one hand, it determines the period of time in which weeds can be controlled, and on the other, it is related to the later phytotoxic effects which can damage the subsequent crops. In order to understand about affiance of this herbicide in potato fields, researches on metribuzin toxicity in common lamb’squarters in soils with different utilizations are essential.
Material and This experiment was conducted to study the effect of soil characteristics and utilization history of metribuzin on its efficiency to common lamb’squarters control as a factorial on the base of randomized complete blocks design with three replications in green house of Institue of Plant Protection in 2012. First factor was soil type in six levels (Hamedan with 15 years and without utilization history, Jiroft with 15 years and without utilization history, Isfahan with 2 years utilization history and Mashhad with 3 years utilization history) and second factor was concentration of metribuzin in six levels (included 0, 100, 300, 700 and 1000 g ai h-1). Soil samples were collected from 0-15 cm depth. Before cultivating, the pots with mentioned soils were treated with metribuzin. Each sample was thoroughly mixed to allow a homogeneous distribution. Non-sprayed samples were used as controls. Common lamb’squarters seeds were planted in pots and the soil in each pot was watered as mist. After emergence, the seedlings were thinned to two per pot. Harvesting weeds were done four weeks after sowing. Then, dry weight and the length of shoot and root were measured. All data were subjected to analysis of variance and means were compared at the 5% level of significance. The classical bioassay, often used to quantify the amount of herbicide in soil, employs a single “standard” dose-response curve. This standard curve show the plant response to different herbicide concentrations and report information of different concepts related to herbicide efficacy, such as selectivity, tolerance and resistance. A typical dose-response curve is sigmoid in shape. One example of such a curve is the loglogistic curve. The data were expressed as a percentage of the untreated control and dose- response curves were drawn.
According to results, more common lamb’squarters was controlled due to increase of herbicide dose. But the effects of metribuzin residue were decreased by increase of amounts of clay, organic matter and utilization history. The amount of herbicide required to reduce the growth of weed by 50% (GR₅₀) when compared with the control was determined for each soil. In the soils with higher organic matter GR₅₀ were increased. The highest and lowest damage to common lamb’squarters was observed in soils of Jiroft without utilization history and Hamedan with 15 years utilization history, respectively So in the soil with long utilization history of metribuzin, common lamb’squarters control was greatly reduced due to the presence of microorganisms adapted to the herbicide and use of it to supply energy. The breakdown of herbicides by soil organisms known as microbes accounts for a large portion of herbicide degradation in soil. Certain bacteria, fungi, and algae use herbicide as a food source. Microbes are herbicide-specific and their population in the soil is related to the amount of herbicide can lead to increased microbe populations and a shorter duration of effective weed control. Organic matter provides excellent habitat for microbes. The adsorption degree of this herbicide is positively correlated with organic matter content and negatively with their persistence. In these situations for controlling this weed higher concentration of metribuzin must be used.

Among legume crops, common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important worldwide crops, because of its cultivation area and nutritional value. The closely related potyviruses Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) and Bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV) are the most common and most destructive viruses that infect common beans throughout the world. The viruses induced similar symptoms in numerous bean genotypes, including mosaic, leaf distortion, stunting, and lethal necrosis. Like all potyviruses, BCMV and BCMNV have non-enveloped flexuous filamentous virions of 750 nm long and 11–13 nm wide, which encapsidate a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA molecule of approximately 10,000 nt long. Both are naturally transmitted by aphids in a non-persistent manner and by seed, which explains their worldwide distribution. These viruses are major constraints on bean production and can cause serious crop losses. Mazanadaran province in north of Iran is one of the major producing areas of legumes, so identification of these viruses is a concern. However, so far, no studies have been done with these viruses in this province. The aim of this research was to study the existence of BCMV and BCMNV in research areas and determining of their phylogenetic relationship. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with degenerate primers for conserved sequences of the viral genomes has facilitated the rapid detection of many potyviruses and enabled partial genomic sequencing. In the absence of complete genomic sequences of potyviruses, CI-coding region is more suitable for diagnostic and taxonomy purposes, rather than the coat protein (CP) usually used. The CI gene most accurately reflects the taxonomic status according to the complete ORF.
From July to September 2013 and 2014, a total of 50 leaf samples of beans showing virus symptoms were collected from different bean fields in Mazandaran province. Total RNA was extracted from all samples. The RT-PCR assay was performed using potyvirus degenerate primers corresponding to the virus CI gene. Expected PCR products of 680 bp were purified from 1% agarose gels using the Gel Recovery kit, then cloned into the pTG19-T vector and sequenced. Sequences were compared to data available in GenBank. Phylogenetic tree for grouping based on nucleotide sequences was constructed by MEGA 5.1 software program using neighbor-joining method. Multiple alignments of the nucleotide and amino acid sequences were carried out using the Clustal W and DNAMAN7 software.
Using potyvirus degenerate primers CI F/R, an amplicon of the expected size (680 bp) was generated from 13 plant samples. Specific amplification using the potyvirus degenerate primers in infected samples, but not from healthy samples, confirmed the presence of a potyvirus. The most typical symptoms in positive samples were mosaic, mottling, rugosity, leaf distortion and necrosis. Two selected PCR positive samples were cloned into the pTG19-T vector, sequenced and submitted to BLASTn to identify the best matching sequences recorded in GenBank. BLASTn analysis of the sequenced data revealed that the PCR-amplified fragments belonged to Bean common mosaic virus (Cowpea) and Bean common mosaic necrosis virus (White bean). Phylogenetic tree based on multiple sequence alignment of 680 nt of CI gene divided all BCNMV isolates into two groups: I and II. Members of each group were divided into two subgroups: A, B. Isolates in subgroup IA included three isolates from China and two isolate from Indonesia. Iranian isolate (BCMV-MAZ) was classified in the group IB with RU1M isolate (USA). Group II included a wide range of Chinese isolates and also one isolate from USA, Germany, India and South Korea. Phylogenetic analysis by comparing the 680 bp of CI gene sequences showed that all BCMNV sequences can be placed into two groups: Only TN1 isolate (USA) was classified in group I. Group II included 2 subgroups A, B. Iranian isolate (BCMNV-MAZ) with NL8 isolate (USA) were classified in the subgroup IIA. Isolates in group IIB included a number of USA isolates and one isolate from the UK. Isolate of BCMV-MAZ (from Sari) showed the highest (96.8% - 98.7%) and the lowest (79.5%-91.6%) nucleotide and amino acid sequence identity with RU1M isolate (USA) and Habin1 (Korea), respectively. Also BCMNV-MAZ (from Jouybar) displayed the highest (97.8%) and the lowest (96.9%) nucleotide sequence identity with NL-3 K, NL5 and NL8, respectively. This isolate was 97.7 % identical with other isolates of the BCMNV at the amino acid identity level.
BCMV and BCMNV are widespread in almost all bean growing areas of Iran and often present in the mixture. In this study, for the first time we reported the occurrence of BCMV and BCMNV in common beans in Mazandaran province based on the RT-PCR, and CI gene analyses, and determining their phylogenetic relationship with other isolates of these viruses available in the GenBank. Primary detection was performed by using CI F/R degenerate primer based on the potyvirus CI gene motifs I and V. Since the sequence identity of CI gene is higher when compared to that of the CP gene and is involved in helicase activity during replication, the use of CI is more accurate in defining orders in potyvirus taxonomy and in evolutionary relationships. Due to ease in the spread of these viruses by seed and vectors, detection of such viruses has a crucial role in the control of these diseases. The data obtained in this study will be beneficial to improve control strategies for these viruses in Iran. Study on the distribution of BCMV and BCMNV will be useful for breeders to incorporate virus resistance into bean cultivars, where any or both of the two viral species occur.

Beans, Phaseolus vulgaris L., are one of the important cultivated crops in Iran. Markazi province with production, 17569 tons, on approximately 7837 ha, is one of most important center of the bean production in the country. The bean plants are attacked by various pests including Thysanoptera species. Thysanoptera are very small, slender with fringed wings insects which are widespread. Thrips reduce crop yield or its marketable value indirectly by vectoring viral plant diseases and directly Different studies were performed to investigate thrips fauna in different crop fields in Iran. But no study was done about identification of thrips species in the bean farms of Markazi province. This study as supplementary was established to investigate thrips faun in the bean fields of Markazi province and secondly to determine which species are more common than others.
The sampling were conducted on commercial bean farms (none chemical treatment) of five principle regions in Markazi (Central) province including Arak, Shazand, Farahan, Khomein and Aman-abad. The Markazi province with an area of 29,406 square kilometers with the climate is semi-arid, moderate and cold mountainous type. The diversity of climate leads to a varied rate of moisture and rain in different regions of the province. The specimens of Thysanoptera were collected from two bean farms (10 farms, each about 0.5 ha) in each five sampling sites every week. The sampling was performed during crop season from May to August, 2012-2013. In each farm, 10 bush bean spaced by at least 10 m from each other were randomly selected. The bush beans were shacked into the white tray and the fallen specimens immediately were collected by thin brush dipped in alcohol. The specimens of each species were counted and stored in Ethanol (80%). The specimens were classified based on body and antennae shape and color and shape of the end of the body and color design of wings., The microscopic slides were prepared and identification were confirmed by Mirab-balu, Assistant professor of Ilam University. All slides were preserved in Entomology laboratory, Department of Plant Protection, Sari University. According the data from 2012, percentage of frequency were calculated by the formula where n is number of the given species and N is total number of all collected species.
The results of this study indicate that the bean fields in different regions of Markazi province could harbor in sum 12 different species belonging to eight genera and three families. The only species belonged to suborder of Tubulifera was Haplothrips reuteri Karny, 1907 (Phlaeothripidae). The other collected species were belonged to suborder Terebrantia. These thrips species are including, Aeolothrips intermedius* Bagnall, 1934 from Aeolothripidae, Thrips atratus Haliday, 1836¡ T. tabaci Lindeman, 1889¡ T. trehernei Priesner, 1927, Microcephalothrips abdominalis* Crawford, 1910¡ Odontothrips confusus* Amyot & Serville, 1843 ¡ Scolothrips longicornis* Priesner 1926¡ Frankliniella intonsa Trybom, 1895¡ F. pallida* Uzel, 1895 ¡ F. occidentalis* Pergande, 1895 Tenothrips frici Uzel, 1895, all from Thripidae family. Among the collected species, six records are new for Markazi fauna which indicated by star (*).The species, onion thrips, Thrips tabaci has highest frequency (65.75 % of all collected species) and is widespread species in the bean farms of Markazi province. The thrips species belong to genus of Frankliniella comprising, F. pallida, F. occidentalis, with frequency, 10.9% and 9.49%, respectively are relatively other pest thrips in the bean fields. H. reuteri has very low frequency (4 %) in the bean farms. The rest species, M. abdominalis (0.07%), F. intonsa (0.22%), T. frici (0.54%), T. trehernei (0.54%) and T. atratus (0.049%) are occasional species. The all thrips species existed in bean fields during two crop season years (2012-2013) but the only, exception was Odontothrips onfusus that was collected during crop season in 2013 just from Shazand region. Two species, A. intermedius (Aeolothripidae) and S. longicornis (Thripidae) which reported for the first time for Markazi fauna are predator and they could feed on other herbivore thrips as well as T. tabaci. However, A. intermedius (8.08% frequency) is relatively more common in compare to the occasional species, S. longicornis (0.32% frequency).
The existence of 12 thrips species showed the relatively high species diversity in the bean field of Markazi province. Different reasons could explain the relatively high diversity. According the hypothesis that high plant diversity lead to high animal diversity, one reason could be because of the well diversity of other crop plants cultivated near to bean fields. Lack of chemical treatment also could be considered as the other reason. The onion thrips, Thrips tabaci, confirmed as most common thrips species in the bean fields of Markazi province. This species is very cosmopolitan and polyphage. It is already reported as a serious pest in other crops such as onion. Therefore, in pest management program, farmers should focus on this pest. Additionally, two thrips species, A. intermedius and S. longicornis reported for the first time as predator and also these have to consider in pests management in these areas.

Rose (Rosa hybrida (L.), Rosaceae) has been grown on earth for millions of years and has been used for beauty and decoration of gardens, extraction of perfume and in medicine. But main use of roses is in cut flower industry and landscaping. Roses are attractive for insects, especially aphids (2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 17, 27, 28, 35, 38). Among them, the predominant aphid that feeds on the cultivated roses in outdoors is the rose aphid, Macrosiphum rosae (13, 27, 28, 29). The rose aphid has a wide distribution throughout Iran and the world (27, 28, 29). Rose aphids generally initiate feeding on roses in early spring as the new flush of growth emerges. Like other aphid species, rose aphids tend to congregate or cluster in large numbers feeding on the terminal growth including leaves and stems, and developing flower buds, and on leaf undersides. Their feeding causes deformity flower buds and leaves which may result in flower buds aborting or falling off prematurely before opening. In addition, aphids secrete honeydew, which attracts ants, wasps, hornets and serves as a growing medium for certain black sooty mold fungi. Rose aphids are attacked by anvarray of natural enemies including parasitoids and predators such as ladybird beetles, green lacewings, syrphids and several other groups of arthropods. These may provide natural regulation depending on the number of rose aphids present and other biotic and abiotic factors. Although many herbivorous arthropods may attack roses but many roses cultivar can resist against these pests (23, 26, 28, 40). An important factor influencing this success is careful selection of varieties, which vary significantly in susceptibility to pests and disease problems (9, 13, 19, 21, 23, 30, 40). Of course, other factors such as agricultural practices and the presence and activities of natural enemies of pests are also important. This study aimed to determine any resistance against rose aphid in different rose cultivars in landscapes of Mashhad and also to determine the diversity and abundance of the rose aphid predators throughout the seasonal growth in the study area.
Material and Research to investigate the resistance of different rose cultivars against rose aphid and the biodiversity of its predators was conducted at the campus of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad from Mid-March of 2013 to late march 2014. Six rose cultivars including Ice berg, Miniature, Josephine bruce, Piccadilly, Fairy & Blessing were sampled weekly in three sampling sites. For sampling, four cut sections (5 centimeters of terminal part of randomly selected shoot) of each cultivar in each site were cut and put in a plastic bag and brought to the laboratory for counting the number of different stages of rose aphid as well as the associated predators. For purpose of identification of immature stages of the aphid predators, immature stage was kept until they reach to adult stage in the laboratory.
A seasonal fluctuation of rose aphid was recorded throughout the season on six rose cultivars (Table 1). Overall, this aphid was more numerous in spring and early fall on all studied cultivars (Figure 1). By approaching the summer, the population of rose aphid on all rose cultivars, except the Fairy and Miniature varieties declined to zero. Analysis of variance showed that differences in mean population of rose aphid among studied cultivars was significant (P