فصلنامه روابط خارجی
پیاپی 18 (تابستان 1392)

Following the establishment of the Human Rights Council in 2006 to replace former Commission of Human Rights, a few new mechanisms were designed in the Council to support its goals of promotion and protection of human rights in the world. One of these mechanisms was Universal Periodic Review (UPR). The UPR is an incentive mechanism based on interaction, mutual dialogue and partnership of all states which reminds states of their responsibility to fully respect and implement all human rights and fundamental freedoms. As one of the main features of the Council, the UPR is designed to ensure equal treatment for every country without any political considerations and biased attitude when their human rights situations are assessed. However, this unique inter-governmental human rights monitoring system faces major challenges. Group alliance and factionalism remains a veritable force in the conduct of "Universal Periodic Review" and the Council as well. Numerous recommendations are formulated in a vague and general manner, making any follow-up process extremely difficult. Moreover, National Human Rights Institutions are failed to have a successful intervention in preparing the national reports and conducting recommendations made during the review.

China as an influential actor at the regional and international levels has always attracted the attention of the European Union. The EU envisages various issues in its relations with China. In this regard, we can mention the two variables of human rights and economy. The stance taken by the EU regarding the human rights situation in China lacks consistency when examined in theory and in practice, so that European countries always criticize the inappropriate situation of human rights in this country and urge Chinese government to respect the rights of its citizens, but at the same time, they are interested in profits resulted from economic cooperation and partnership with Beijing hence avoiding issues related to human rights have a negative impact on economic relations between the two sides. Therefore, the main question is that how much human rights violation influence relations between the EU and China? Our hypothesis is that human rights variable enjoys a lower status than economic and commercial considerations in relations between the EU and China.

In the beginning of 1391 (2012) the news of the execution of several Iranian nationals by the Saudis authorities was broadcast. The Iranian government reacted by condemning the execution as illegal and accusing the Saudi authorities of violating their international obligations under international law; in particular general human rights and the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations. The main purpose of the Geneva Convention is to protect the interests of the nationals of the sending states and to ensure the efficient performance of functions by consular posts on behalf of their respective states. It therefore held them internationally responsible. This article intends to examine the legality of the Saudi acts and to see whether they constitute a breach of an international obligation of that state and; hence, entailing its international responsibility. To this end, the article 36 of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, international precedents and customary rules of international law will be examined. The importance of this subject is not difficult to comprehend: should the answer to the above question be affirmative then that would uphold the Iranian government legal rights and would strengthen its diplomatic position regarding the illegal execution of Iranian nationals by the Saudi government; whereupon it would prevent the latter from committing such atrocity in the future.

The structure of international system is affected by its key actors. Among the actors of international system, the UN Security Council is considered to have a significant role. Considering its role and position, the Security Council has been able to advance crucial global issues and leave significant effects behind. World powers forming the permanent members of the Council are pursing not only the issues of global interest, but also their national goals and interests. The Security Council’s authority regarding global intervention has encouraged other countries to seek its permanent membership. Brazil, among them, relying on its own regional and global role and power and benefiting from a variety of factors in power and wealth is in quest of joining the current permanent members of the Council. The unique characteristics of the country in the Latin America region and the significant parameters it possesses in the global arena have led Brazil to claim for a Security Council permanent seat. Surpassing many powerful countries in political, cultural and economical scopes, Brazil is now trying to create a new interpretation of global equations. Rejecting the US unilateral power, Brazil has supported multilateralism. It has challenged the mechanisms of a unipolar world and is looking to expand its sphere of influence through permanent membership of the Security Council. This study investigates the reasons and the procedures Brazil’s efforts are following to join the permanent members of the Security Council. Considering Brazil’s plan for permanent membership, the country faces opportunities and challenges analyzed in this article.

China has experienced spectacular changes through the three past decades. Since the beginning of economic reforms and implementing Deng Xiaoping’s open doors policy, China has succeeded to achieve the average growth rate of 9.7% per year. Today, China has become the second country of the world in attracting the foreign direct investments, the third country in foreign trade and the second greatest economic power of the world. This economic growth has also increased the weight of China in international equations. Nowadays, China plays a great role in solving the international problems as one of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. Undoubtedly, analyzing the process that China has passed to take this position can teach a lesson to other developing countries. Thinking about the current position of China raises the following questions: which characteristics in the society and governmental structure of China have been instrumental in bringing about such an amazing success for this country. Considering the great linkage between internal and foreign policies in the era of globalization, what are the internal sources affecting China's international behavior and its ascension in the global hierarchy of power? To answer these questions, the main hypothesis is that: Human sources and capital, the relative consensus among political elites about national interests and increasing nationalist sentiments in Chinese society are the main factors that help promote its position.

The issue of the reunification of the Korean Peninsula have become more serious in the academic and political circles after the death of North Korea's leader in December 2011. The division of the Korean mainland into Northern and Southern parts since the end of World War II, halted the integrated development of the Korean people and created hostility between the north and south. This has become a large barrier against comprehensive peace in North East Asia and the Korean Peninsula. The current crisis of the Korean Peninsula is rooted in the Cold War and the functions of foreign agents. But after the passage of more than two decades from the Cold War, the Korean crisis still remains in vigor and the reunification talks have not born any fruit. In addition to a short historical review of the Korea division and prospects for the reunification, this paper tries to analyze the positions of great powers on the unification by applying a theoretical approach. The study relying upon the neorealism theory of international relations, shows that influential powers in this region (United States of America, Russia, China, Japan) are seeking to maintain the status quo, because the Korean unification would change the equation of powers in the region resulting that their long-term interests lying in maintaining balance, would be damaged.

The evolution of human societies has been accompanied by shaping political cleavages. The emergence of the nation state system and its development deepened and institutionalized political cleavages in their various aspects. These cleavages, if continue, can foster political rivalries and division and would have a great impact on the political destiny of states. In fact, political behavior and electoral competition result from active cleavages in different times in various political systems. Therefore, political cleavages are among important topics of politics and are considered as major problems for states. The processes of modernization and democratization are coupled with the emergence of new cleavages that the recognition of them is necessary for maintaining political stability and equilibrium and developing the civil society. Previously, in an article titled "European System and Active Political Cleavages", class, religious and climatic (territorial) cleavages discussed. This article tries to study new political cleavages in Europe. In fact, the main question is that how much tradition political cleavages still influence political behavior? Given the dynamism of human societies and the domination of pluralist models in European democratic regimes, we always witness the emergence and growth of new conflicts and cleavages apt for being politicized and influencing political structures. Therefore, this article studies new cleavage appeared in the post – Cold War era in European societies with their great potentials as active political cleavages.

The main aim of this paper is to study Arab spring from liberalism, constructivism and critical theory point of view. Because the most of articles written about Arab spring have not been relied upon a theoretical perspective, in the first part of this paper, we examine the liberal theory as one of the mainstream theories of international relations. This section concentrates on the concepts of globalization and information effects causing spillover revolution from one country to another. In the second part of this paper, we examine constructivism theory and focus on the concept of identity and explain resistant identities. Finally, we study critical theory and explain the concept of emancipation which can lead to revolution.