فصلنامه روابط خارجی
پیاپی 7 (پاییز 1389)

International developments have further complicated the nexus between foreign policy and economy. Nowadays a dynamic, global–oriented economy depends in large measure on a proactive, interactive, and effective foreign policy. Energy has been playing an increasingly important role in the world economy in general, and in the economy of energy-producing-exporting countries in particular. The present article tries to first look into current various approaches to the energy field (such as instrumental, consumption-oriented, security-oriented, and developmental perspectives) as well as into the role of oil in foreign policy. Given Iran’s long and turbulent history regarding oil and politics and also its status as a major oil and gas producer, the article will then discuss the role of energy in the Iranian economy. While emphasizing the significance of foreign policy in assisting the energy sector, the article will conclude that improvement in Iran's economic conditions will depend on strengthening its international interactions.

"Globalization", as a Meta concept, can be considered as one of the most common terms in recent decades, which has also come to affect the understanding of many other concepts. For one, globalization has confronted the realm of religion with many new questions and given rise to the emergence of different outlooks. Concurrent with the process of globalization and the development of intercultural and inter-religious communications, the world has also witnessed the growth of nationalist, ethnic and religious movements coupled with increase in violent conflicts and civil wars. These new political and social developments have led in turn to other developments in the international scene. The present article tries to have an analytical look into the possible relationship between globalization and the re-introduction of religion into political, social, and international realms on the one hand and the emergence of new challenges on the other. The article will raise a major question: will a new challenge between globalization and religion similar to the challenge between religion and modernity in 18th and 19th centuries emerge and develop? The article’s main hypothesis is that while globalization will facilitate the growth and expansion of intercultural and inter-religious communications, it will also foster new challenges within and among societies.

Social cleavages differ from one society to another, due to diverse factors, and can have differing effects. Social cleavages in Israel are unique and peculiar to that society, stemming from its particular historical conditions. The very fact that this society has been formed by an immigrant population sets it quite apart from other societies formed by [mostly] indigenous population – which can be called a “natural society.” Moreover, the society has been formed through the rapid immigration in a relatively short period of a large number of Jewish groups from different societies, and not the result of a gradual and long–term process. The present article, drawing upon the theory developed by Regan Chris which takes a maximalist approach to social cleavages, tries to study existing cleavages in the Israeli society and assess their impact on social cohesion and national identity, and finally on Israel's national security.

Despite numerous and frequent ups and downs in the U.S.–Israeli relations during the past six decades, the U.S. has remained as the main ally and supporter of Israel throughout this long period. It can be argued that the relations between the two countries have continued so closely and intimately that their mutual interests have manifested themselves in the form of a “special relationship.” All the U.S. presidents since 1948, both republican and democrat, inclusive of President Barack Obama, have undertaken comprehensive commitments towards Israel's security, turning Israel into a strategic asset for the U.S. and giving their strategic relations almost a permanent character. While it is generally argued that powerful Jewish lobby in the U.S. has played a critical role in this regard, the importance of mutual interests, common values and attitudes, similarity in governance structures, institutions, and mechanisms, similar outlooks to foreign and domestic issues and policies, as well as Israel's peculiar nuclear policy, can hardly be underestimated. This article, while studying the special relationship between the U.S. and Israel in the past, tries to analyze the Middle East policy of the Obama administration in light of this special relationship and assess its impact on the future relations between the two countries.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, traditionally looked at as merely a major oil-exporting country in the Persian Gulf, has in more recent years endeavored to change that image and pursue a somewhat different approach and policy. In more concrete terms, Saudi Arabia has tried during the reign of King Abdullah to move away from the previous predominant oil-exporting image and assume a more active role as a major regional player. This article undertakes to study different aspects of the new Saudi approaches, orientations, goals, and policies in recent years geared towards changing the country’s status and role with regard to a wide range of issue sand situations, in its immediate neighborhood as well as in the bigger Middle East region. To this end, it looks at the Saudi foreign policy outlooks and priorities towards the Persian Gulf area, Arab countries, and the Muslim world. Domestic policies and developments in the Saudi Kingdom, including during the period prior to the reign of King Abdullah, are looked at and analyzed to the extent that they contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the subject at hand.

Relations between Iran and Russia appear to have soured during the past year. This rather unexpected negative development in the otherwise close and friendly relations between the two countries has attracted a lot of attention, both in Iran and at the international level. The present article looks into this development and uses such variables as the "great bargain" between Russia and the United States where relations with Iran are used as a "playing card"; "threat perception from Iran"; and finally, "the essential problems related to the nature of relations and mutual expectations". The author, however, gives a higher weight to the latter variable. The article first reviews Iran-Russia relations during the past twenty years, emphasizing that these relations had been based on a mutual misunderstanding; both countries’ perception of each other and the consequent expectations had been misplaced, hence the recent and current difficulties. The author believes, however, that a new relationship can be forged between the two countries based on a sound understanding and appreciation of each other’s respective situation and real capabilities as well as through realistic mutual perceptions and expectations.

Adoption of proper trade policies by countries depends, among others, on their full awareness of the status of their trading partners. The present article tries to look into the question of how “international rankings” approach and define the status of various countries. More specifically, the article argues that most of the international methods used for ranking of countries have been developed by Western countries, which in the authors’ view, might have been influenced by certain political considerations and tendencies, hence leading to a certain bias in the consideration of relevant factors and indices and their weight in the determination of the status. In the light of this overall outlook, the article suggests that countries should approach such international data and statistics with caution and instead undertake to develop their own methods, taking into consideration an alternative combination of factors in accordance with their own national characteristics, concerns and interests. As for Iran, the authors believe that based on their study, economic factors should be given a higher weight and profile in the country’s international trade and specifically in its trade diplomacy in order to protect and promote national interests.