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مطالعات شبه قاره - سال دهم شماره 35 (پاییز و زمستان 1397)

نشریه مطالعات شبه قاره
سال دهم شماره 35 (پاییز و زمستان 1397)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1398/01/17
  • تعداد عناوین: 13
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  • محمود حسن آبادی* صفحات 9-24
    پیوند دیرین میان ایران و هند و رواج زبان فارسی در هند بی نیاز از بحث است. آثار بسیاری به زبان فارسی در زمینه های مختلف در هند پدید آمده که امروزه به صورت نسخه ی خطی زینت بخش کتابخانه های مختلف جهان است و تصحیح و چاپ آنها ضرورتی است انکارناپذیر. از جمله ی این آثار، مرقعی است منحصر بفرد موسوم به ابنیه ی هند، در چند برگ معدود در دانشگاه اوپسالای سوئد، در معرفی چهل و پنج بنای کهن در بناهای احمدآباد هند، بانیان و سال ساخت هر بنا. مولف و سال کتابت اثر نامعلوم است، اما با توجه به قراین احتمالا در سده ی 13 ه.ق کتابت شده است. روش تصحیح متن، روش قیاسی است و تلاش شده جز برای یکدست کردن ناهماهنگی ها یا تصحیح اشتباهی فاحش در جهت فهم درست متن، تغییری در آن ایجاد نشود. یقینا این مرقع مفصل تر از این بوده، اما همین مقدار اندک باقیمانده، بویژه از حیث تاریخ، جغرافیا و شهرشناسی و نیز نشان دادن گستره ی نفوذ اسلام و زبان فارسی در آن سامان اهمیت دارد و جزئی از مواریث زبان و ادب پارسی است. ابنیه ی هند برخی ویژگی های خاص زبانی و ادبی دارد که از نظر بازنمایاندن فارسی رایج در هند، واژگان، دستور و سبک آن حائز اهمیت است.
    کلیدواژگان: ابنیه ی هند، احمدآباد، نسخه ی خطی، مسجد، عمارت
  • حسین خاکپور*، علیرضا حیدری نسب، عبد الغنی کردی صفحات 25-42
    حسن الدین احمد قرآن پژوه معاصر شبه قاره آثار متعددی درباره قرآن به رشته تحریر در آورده که مهمترین آنها «رویکردی نو به مطالعه قرآن» می باشد. مقاله حاضر  به روش توصیفی-تحلیلی، بحث "نماد"را از دیدگاه این اندیشمند تحلیل و بررسی نموده است. حسن الدین احمد، تلاش می کند "نماد"را به صورت خلاصه و مفید درکتاب پیش گفته طرح نماید.  بیان ایشان دارای نکات مفیدی است اما کاستی ها و نواقصی هم دارد . عدم توجه به منابع اصیل اسلامی ونظرمفسران قرآن، تاثیر پذیری بی ضابطه از مستشرقان،عدم رعایت قواعد زبانشناختی،نادیده گرفتن حجیت ظواهر قرآن، از مهمترین آسیبهای مبنایی،روشی،مفهومی ومصداقی دیدگاه ایشان می باشد.
    کلیدواژگان: شبه قاره، حسن الدین احمد، نماد، سمبل
  • نظام علی دهنوی* صفحات 43-60
    هندوستان از زمان خواجه مویدالدین محمد باقی (971 1012 ه.ق) تا بعد از وفات شاه غلام علی عبدالله دهلوی (1240 ه.ق) مرکز طریقت نقشبندیه محسوب می شد. اغلب شیوخ و خلفای نام آور برای کسب سلوک در محضر مرشد کامل عازم این دیار می شدند. از آن سو، بررسی ها نشان می دهد که در کردستان در ابتدای قرن نوزدهم میلادی، طریقت نقشبندیه بر خلاف طریقت قادریه، طریقتی شناخته شده نبود. در نیمه نخست قرن مذکور، مولانا خالد شهرزوری و تعدادی دیگر از کردها عازم هندوستان شدند و مراحل سلوک طریقت نقشبندیه را طی کرده، اجازه ارشاد از مرشد اعظم دریافت نمودند و به موطن خویش بازگشتند. این مقاله با استفاده از روش تحقیق تاریخی با رویکرد توصیفی تحلیلی به بررسی نقش و رابطه مرشد کامل طریقت نقشبندیه مجددیه در هندوستان در شکل گیری این طریقت در کردستان و چگونگی پراکندگی آن در امپراتوری عثمانی می پردازد. نتایج پژوهش نشان می دهد که مولانا خالد توانست با جذب بسیاری از بزرگان طریقت قادریه، تعدادی از علمای دینی، فضلا و دولتمردان عثمانی، طریقت نقشبندیه را به جایگاه رفیعی در کردستان و در قلمرو امپراتوری عثمانی برساند. نقش برجسته مولانا خالد و خلفای او در گسترش سریع شبکه طریقت خویش باعث شد که پس از مرگ شاه غلام علی عبدالله دهلوی، مرکزیت طریقت نقشبندیه از هندوستان به عثمانی انتقال یابد و شاخه خالدیه در این طریقت شکل گیرد.
    کلیدواژگان: طریقت نقشبندیه، مولانا خالد نقشبندی، کردستان، هندوستان، امپراتوری عثمانی
  • عباس سرافرازی*، مریم ابراهیمی صفحات 61-78
    زبان فارسی یکی از ابزارهای نفوذ ایران در سرزمین های دیگر محسوب می شد.  ازدوره مغولان هند،  زبان فارسی حتی اشعار فارسی به سکه های مغولان هند افزده شد و تا پایان حکومت آنان اشعار فارسی بر سکه ها نقش بست. در ابتدا انگلیسی ها مجبورشدند از زبان فارسی در سکه های خود استفاده کنند اما چون پی به اهمیت این زبان در هند بردند و آن را مانعی برای اهداف استعماری خود می دیدند در صدد بر اندازی آن بر آمدند و در این امر توفیق یافتند. اهمیت تحقیق در این است که در صدد است یکی دیگر از عوامل رواج زبان فارسی در هند یعنی سکه ها را مورد بررسی قرار دهد و به این سوالات پاسخ گوید که سکه های فارسی از چه زمانی در هند رواج یافته است؟ آیا سکه های فارسی در گسترش زبان فارسی در هند موثر واقع شده اند؟ روش پژوهش در این تحقیق روش تاریخی براساس شناسایی و معرفی سکه ها می باشد. یافته تحقیق عبارت است از اینکه برای اولین بار استفاده از زبان فارسی درسکه ها در هندوستان در دوره مغولان هند صورت گرفت. زبان فارسی تا پایان این سلسله بر روی سکه ها دیده می شود تا اینکه عوامل مختلفی از جمله استعمارگران کمپانی هند در صدد نابودی زبان فارسی بر آمدند و استفاده از زبان فارسی بر روی سکه ها از رونق افتاد.
    کلیدواژگان: شبه قاره هند، زبان فارسی، سکه ها، کمپانی هند شرقی، مغولان هند
  • فاطمه صادقی نقدعلی علیا*، نصرالله امامی صفحات 79-98
    نیمه دوم قرن دهم هجری، در شبه قاره ی هند، مقارن است با دوران حکومت اکبرشاه گورکانی که به اذعان قریب به اتفاق محققان، دوران اوج رواج زبان و ادب فارسی در آن سرزمین بوده است. محققان عوامل سیاسی، اجتماعی و فرهنگی بسیاری را در این اوج گیری موثر دانسته اند. مقاله حاضر با هدف بررسی هر چه دقیق تر سرگذشت زبان و ادب فارسی در شبه قاره هند، با روش توصیفی تحلیلی و بر اساس منابع کتابخانه ای، به بررسی رویکرد اکبرشاه گورکانی به شعر فارسی و شاعران فارسی سرا و نقش موثر وی در رواج روزافزون این دو مقوله در شبه قاره هند پرداخته و بنابراین، ابتدا براساس منابع معتبر تاریخی، رویکرد اکبرشاه گورکانی به شعر و شاعران فارسی سرا را بررسی کرده و سپس در جهت اثبات هر چه بیشتر موضوع، نمودهای این مضمون را از منظر سروده های پنج شاعر برجسته ی این قرن، یعنی غزالی مشهدی، فیضی فیاضی، عرفی شیرازی، نظیری نیشابوری و قاسم کاهی واکاوی و ارایه کرده است. نتایج پژوهش حاکی از آن است که بیش از هر عامل دیگری، پیشینه ی فرهنگی ادبی اکبرشاه، تسلط وی به فرهنگ و زبان فارسی، سخن دانی، سخن سنجی، علاقه و در نهایت توجه ویژه و مستقیم او به شعر فارسی و شاعران فارسی سرا از عوامل اصلی رواج زبان و ادب فارسی در شبه قاره آن عصر بوده است.
    کلیدواژگان: شبه قاره هند، اکبرشاه گورکانی، شعر فارسی و شاعران فارسی سرا
  • نرجس بانو صبوری*، آسیه ذبیح نیا عمران صفحات 99-120
    عضو دل به جهت جایگاه مرکزی خود در بدن انسان از اهمیت ویژه ای برخوردار است. بررسی مفهوم سازی هایی که در زبان فارسی در خصوص اعضای بدن انجام شده، نشان می دهند که عضو دل بیش از هر عضو دیگری در این مفهوم پردازی ها دخیل بوده است. هدف پژوهش حاضر بررسی ارتباط مفهوم سازی های عضو دل با دیگر اعضای بدن در غزلیات حسن دهلوی بر اساس نظریه معاصر استعاره یا استعاره مفهومی است. این بررسی به شیوه توصیفی- تحلیلی و بر اساس مفاهیم نظریه معاصر استعاره انجام پذیرفته است. کلیاتی در خصوص استعاره سنتی و نیز مفهومی و بررسی برخی بیت های مشتمل بر ارتباط دل با دیگر اندام های بدن در غزلیات حسن دهلوی بر پایه نظریه استعاره مفهومی بخش های اصلی این پژوهش را تشکیل می دهند. یافته های این پژوهش بر این تاکید دارند که نظریه معاصر استعاره ابزار مناسبی برای تبیین پیوند استعاری دل با دیگر اعضای بدن در غزلیات حسن دهلوی است. بررسی استعاره های موجود نشان از آن دارد که دهلوی برای بیان پیوند دل با دیگر اعضاء، از انواع استعاره های هستی شناختی بهره برده و استعاره های «عضو بدن شیء/ ماده است»، «عضو بدن انسان است» و «عضو بدن ظرف است» در این مفهوم سازی ها نقش اساسی داشته اند.
    کلیدواژگان: نظریه معاصر استعاره، دل، اعضای بدن، غزلیات حسن دهلوی
  • محمدرضا عسکرانی* صفحات 121-138
    تجارت ایران و هند در آستانه مشروطه افزایش یافت و این امر موجب دگرگونی در جامعه ایران شد. مساله اصلی تحقیق بازشناسی چگونگی و پیامدهای روابط تجاری بین ایران و هند است. هدف تحقیق ارائه تحلیل تازه ای از تاثیر روابط بازرگانی ایران و هند بر اقتصاد ایران در آغاز قرن بیستم میلادی و فرصت ها و تهدیدهای این مناسبات است. رویکرد تحقیق حاضر «کیفی»و «توصیفی - تحلیلی» است و  داده ها به روش «اسنادی»و بر پایه منابع «کتابخانه ای»گردآوری شده اند. فرضیه پژوهش این است که افزایش مبادلات تجاری با هند در آن برهه از زمان، از یک سو بر تولیدات داخلی اثر گذاشت و از سوی دیگر به رشد تفکر نوگرایی و بروز مشروطه کمک کرد. یافته های پژوهش نشان می دهد که در آستانه مشروطه فعالیت بازرگانی بین دو کشور افزایش یافت و بر اثر ارتباط زرتشتیان ایران با پارسیان هند و رفت و آمد بازرگانان، زمینه برخی تحولات نوگرایانه فراهم آمد؛ لیکن پس از پیروزی مشروطه به دلیل بروز ناامنی و مداخله بیگانگان، روند توسعه اجتماعی که بر پایه تجارت با هند آغاز شده بود، کاهش یافت و اقتصاد کشور آسیب دید. پس از بستن قرارداد 1907م. با روسیه نیز انگلستان بر اقتصاد جنوب ایران چیرگی کامل یافت.
    کلیدواژگان: بازرگانی، هند، انگلیس، ایران، مشروطه
  • سوسن فیضی گیلانده*، محمدرضا روزبه، علی حیدری صفحات 139-158
    بررسی آیین های مشترک بین مردم سرزمین های گوناگون و یافتن ریشه های آن ها، ما را به وجود اشتراکاتی در فرهنگ ملل مختلف راهنمایی می کند. خودسوزی زن بیوه در مراسم سوزانده شدن جسد همسرش و همراهی با او، تحت عنوان آیین «ستی» انجام می شده است. ستی و شکل های مختلف آن  بین هندوان با قدمت 1000 تا 500 سال پیش از میلاد رواج داشته است.این آیین در مرگ های متوالی و شکل جبری آن در گورخانه های بسیاری، چهره غیرانسانی خود را نشان داده و در شکل ظاهرا خودخواسته نماد عشق، وفاداری و عفت و پاکی در منظومه های عاشقانه ای با عنوان «ستی نامه» یا با عنوان های دیگر در هند و ایران به تصویر کشیده شده است. این مقاله با هدف پرتوافکنی بر زوایای ناشناخته آیین ستی و به روش توصیفی-تحلیلی تنظیم شده است.  این پژوهش با توجه به اسناد موجود و مطالعات باستان شناسان در مناطق مختلف به وجود تشابه هایی در انجام و چگونگی آن در هند با آنچه در بین مردم مصر، چین، روسیه، روم و تاتار بوده، دست یافته و نشان داده است پیش از آنکه «ستی» امری خودخواسته باشد، امری جبری بوده و ابتدا در خاندان های سلطنتی و پادشاهی، بنابه دلایل خاصی صورت می گرفته است.
    کلیدواژگان: ستی، آتش آزمون، آیین، گورخانه ها، مرگ های متوالی
  • بتول محسنی راد* صفحات 159-176
    سرزمین هند به واسطه برخورداری از تاریخ کهن  وقدمتی  چند هزار ساله، تاثیر زیادی بر گاهواره تمدن جهان، بویژه ادبیات ومتون عربی به جا گذاشت؛.با نگاهی به متون نظم ونثرعربی درزمان های مختلف ، این تاثیر به خوبی  مشهود است. در این نوشتارسعی برآن شده که به شکل موجز،تعریفی ازهند وروابط آن با عرب ها، وانعکاس فرهنگ هند درادبیات دوره های مختلف عربی ارائه شود. همچنین از خدمات بی شائبه" ابوریحان بیرونی "به عنوان پیشتاز مطالعات هندی"  وپدر "هند شناسی " وخلق  اثر بزرگ ایشان  به نام "تحقیق ما للهند من مقوله مقبوله فی العقل او مرذوله " که نقش مهمی در انعکاس ومعرفی  فرهنگ پربار هند به جهان و دنیای عرب  داشت،  نام برده  شود. ودر ادامه به بررسی  شاهکار  بی نظیر ودیع البستانی نویسنده مشهور لبنانی در ترجمه حماسه های بزرگ هندی"مها بها را تا" و"رامیانا" به زبان عربی  پرداخته می شود.در نهایت یافته های تحقیق حاکی از آن است که ترجمه ودیع البستانی مهم ترین میراث ترجمه در جهان عرب است. وکتاب ابوریحان  برای معرفی تاریخ وفرهنگ هند قابل تامل وتقدیراست. این نوشتار به روش توصیفی وبا تکیه برمنابع واسنادتاریخی انجام گرفته است.
    کلیدواژگان: تمدن هند، زبان عربی، ابوریحان بیرونی، ودیع البستانی
  • فاطمه مشایخی*، احمد حسنی رنجبر، علی اصغر حلبی صفحات 177-194
    پایه و اساس سخن " کلمه " است و بررسی ساختار کلمه یکی از ابزارهای زیبایی شناسی متن است."ترکیب سازی"همواره مورد توجه شاعران بوده است و بسیاری از آنان برای بیان نگرشهای خلاقانه خود ، ترکیبهای بدیعی به واژه های زبان افزوده اند." بیدل دهلوی" شاعری است که توانایی بی نظیری در "رستاخیز کلمات" دارد.وی ترکیبهای خاصی  در شعر خود آفریده است که خصیصه زبانی او به شمار می آید . این ترکیبات از مهمترین عوامل "غموض" در شعر اوست و به همین دلیل ،کمتر مورد بررسی قرار گرفته اند. پژوهش حاضر به بررسی ژرف ساخت ، روابط نحوی و هسته معنایی کلمات مرکب در غزلیات بیدل می پردازد.ترکیبات از نظر هسته معنایی به دو گروه "ترکیبات برون مرکز"و " درون مرکز" طبقه بندی شده، سپس با توجه به جمله های ژرف ساخت روابط نحوی اجزای ترکیب نشان داده شده است.اجزای ترکیب ،روابط نحوی گوناگونی مانند:" روابط مسندی،متممی،فاعلی،مفعولی و قیدی دارند. تشخیص این روابط نحوی و معنایی در تبیین مفهوم مورد نظر شاعر و شناخت سبک هندی سودمند خواهد بود.
    کلیدواژگان: بیدل، ترکیبات خاص، روابط نحوی، هسته معنای
  • حمیده ملک پور افشار*، عباس سرافرازی صفحات 195-214
    در دوره حاکمیت صفویان بر ایران، گروهی از شاهزادگان صفوی به هندوستان رفتند. در بین آن ها، فرزندان سلطان حسین میرزا بن بهرام میرزا بن شاه اسماعیل شهرت بسیار یافتند. این شاهزادگان در پی اختلاف بر سر قدرت، حملات بی امان ازبکان، اوضاع نابسامان داخلی در ایران، وعده و وعید های اکبرشاه و جاذبه های کشور هندوستان به دربار مغولان هند پناه بردند. مهمترین پیامد این مهاجرت، از دست رفتن قندهار بود. پرسش اصلی در این پژوهش، تعیین نقش این شاهزادگان، در دربار مغولان هند بوده است. نگارندگان کوشیده اند با بهره گیری از روش تحقیق تاریخی، مبتنی بر روش تحلیلی- توصیفی به آن پاسخ دهند. براساس فرضیه مطرح شده، این اشخاص در رویدادها و تحولات سیاسی این حکومت، نقش موثری ایفاء نمودند. نتایج حاصل از پژوهش نشان می دهد آنها در دوران سلطنت طولانی مدت اکبرشاه وارد هند شدند. در مدت حضور خود در هند، مورد تکریم شاهان هندوستان بودند. با آنها ارتباط خویشاوندی محکمی برقرار نمودند. گاهی نیز با اعمالشان، نارضایتی مغولان هند را در پی داشتند. اما در مجموع حضور موثر آنها در تحولات مهمی نظیر فتح دکن، بلخ و بدخشان و تلاش برای تصرف دوباره قندهار و آشوب های اواخر سلطنت شاهجهان، غیرقابل کتمان است.
    کلیدواژگان: شاهزادگان صفوی، قندهار، مغولان هند، پناهندگی
  • علی اکبر نصیری*، فاطمه دهانی گنکی صفحات 215-228
    توسل یعنی انسان باواسطه قرار دادن اموری به خدا نزدیک تر شود. بسیاری از مسلمانان از جواز توسل به انبیاء و اولیاء الهی چه در زمان حیات و چه بعد از حیاتشان و بسیاری از وجوه توسل دفاع کرده اند ازجمله این افراد می توان به دو تن از علمای بزرگ دیوبندیه یعنی خلیل احمد سهارنپوری و اشرف علی تهانوی اشاره کرد. ضرورت پرداختن به این موضوع آن است که سبب کسب آگاهی از نظرات این دو تن از علمای دیوبندیه می شود که آن ها توسل را شرک نمی دانند، در این مقاله که به روش توصیفی، تحلیلی و با ابزار کتابخانه ای نگاشته شده، ابتدا به بررسی معانی مختلف این واژه ازنظر لغت پژوهان پرداخته و سپس به طرح دیدگاه های گوناگون مبادرت ورزیده و نگاه دو شخصیت مذکور را  در خصوص توسل توصیف و تحلیل خواهیم کرد. نتیجه بحث نشان می دهد که آن ها نه تنها توسل را شرک نمی دانند بلکه معتقد به جواز توسل به قرآن، اسماء الهی، پیامبر و صالحین، استغاثه از شخص پیامبر چه در زمان حیات و چه بعد ازحیاتشان، زیارت قبور انبیاء و اولیاء، تبرک، شفاعت، تکریم قبور و... می باشند.
    کلیدواژگان: توسل، دیوبندیه، خلیل احمد سهارنپوری، اشرف علی تهانوی
  • رقیه همتی*، عبدالله ولی پور صفحات 305-324
    عرفان اسلامی با عرفان هندی شباهت های زیادی دارد، در این میان اندیشه «وحدت وجود» یکی از شایان توجه ترین مباحث است. اوپانیشادها یکی از مهم ترین کتاب های مقدس هندوان است، که درون مایه عرفانی دارد و با زبان رمز و تمثیل بیان شده است. اولین اصل و مبحثی که اساس و بنیان تعلیمات اوپانیشادهاست، مبحث وحدت وجود است، بیدل دهلوی نیز که یکی از شیفتگان اندیشه وحدت وجود است، هرچند تاثیرپذیری وی از اندیشه «وحدت وجودی» ابن عربی غیرقابل انکار است، ولی نظر به این که  بیدل تمام عمر خود را در میان هندوان سپری کرده است، قطعا در تعالیم عرفانی خود از اندیشه های هندی نیز تاثیر پذیرفته و تمثیل هایی را که اوپانیشادها برای تبیین و تشریح اندیشه وحدت وجود بیان کرده، در آثار خود منعکس کرده است. این پژوهش به شیوه توصیفی-تحلیلی به بررسی تطبیقی تمثیل های مشترک وحدت وجود در اوپانیشادها و آثار بیدل پرداخته است. حاصل پژوهش نشان می دهد که هرچند تمثیل های وحدت وجود در آثار بیدل دهلوی، بسیار زیاد است، ولی در این میان، تمثیل های آب و مظاهر آن، آینه و تصویر، سایه و آفتاب، هسته و درخت، خواب و بیداری، رنگ و بی رنگی، نفس و صوت و نطق، از جمله تمثیل های مشترک وحدت وجود در اوپانیشادها و آثار بیدل است.
    کلیدواژگان: وحدت وجود، عرفان اسلامی، عرفان هندی، بیدل دهلوی و اوپانیشاد
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  • Mahmoud Hassanabadi * Pages 9-24
    Introduction
    The deep and long-standing connections between India and the Persian language and the prevalence of the Persian language in India before the arrival of the British and their dominance over India, are undeniable. The Indian Muslim dynasties, from the east to the south and east of India encouraged and cultivated the Persian language, although some of them did not have Iranian roots. The production and compilation of numerous works in Persian, such as historical and translated books to Divans and lexicons etc., in the subcontinent confirms this point. Some of these works have been lucky enough to be edited and published, but there are still plenty of works in Persian by Indian scholars and literary men, that are part of Persian heritage, which remain as manuscripts in various private or general libraries and collections in India and around the world, and editing and publishing them is vital.
    Among these works is a treatise named Abniyah-ye Hind, introducing the buildings of the city of Ahmadabad, the builders and the date of construction of each building. The geographers, historians and travel writers in the old times, in description of cities, after an overall assessment of the city, introduced urban structures such as markets, palaces, baths, mosques and other buildings of the city, and sometimes the founders and makers and the date of their constructions (Tavassoli, 1393/2014: 41ff). The purpose of writing of this treatise is not known, but it is likely that the work would have been produced in response to a request from a king, an emir or a ruler, or for use in a larger work in history, geography or travelogue. However, what is in hand is ten pages, describing antiquated urban structures of Ahmedabad in India. This manuscript was likely larger than today’s version, yet this short remaining part has great importance, particularly when it comes to the historical, geographical and urbanistic perspectives, as well as in demonstrating the influence of Islam and the Persian language in India. Therefore editing of this short manuscript seems vital.  
    Research and edition methodology
    Since this is the only version of this manuscript, a deductive method of editing was used on it, meaning little-to-no changes were made to the text, except to smooth out inconsistencies and correct verbal and linguistic mistakes, allowing the readers to gain better understanding.
    - Today’s rules of the Persian orthography, in accordance with the suggested approach of the Iranian Academy of Persian Language and Literature, have been followed, especially writing independent words, unbound.
    - In the manuscript, some words had been written based on Indian letters (vocals and consonants) such as ‘ṭanke’ (ٹانکه), ‘baḍa’ (بڈا), ‘varre (واڑه); we rewrote them in common Persian letters.
    - Utilising authoritative sources, historical mistakes were corrected and explained in the section of ‘explanations’.
    Discussion
    Ahmedabad, the largest city of Gujarat in the west of India, and the fifth most populous city of the sub-continent was founded in 1411 by Sultan Ahmad Shah Gujarati (r:1411-1442) from the Mozaffarid dynasty of Gujarat, on the bank of the Sabarmati river, to be the capital of the Gujarat dynasty. During the British colonial times, the city became modernized and its infrastructures expanded. In 1960, with the formation of the Gujarat state and its independence from Mumbai, Ahmedabad became the commercial center of Gujarat (see Bloom&Blair, 2009 and Michell&Shah, 2003).
    In the present work, the unknown author describes forty-five antiquated buildings of Ahmadabad, their constructers and the dates of construction, focusing more on the mosques and schools. The name of the manuscript is not known as well as the name of its author and its time of creation, but some speculations suggest that it was written in 19th century. The work reaches ten pages, written in Nastaʿlīq and cursive script; its size is 19.4 × 29.3 cm; each page is divided into six parts, with each part being assigned to one building. Sometimes, in addition to the construction date of a building, a poem is also brought as a chronogram. The oldest building described in the work is the castle of Ahmedabad dating from 1411 and the newest is a mosque outside the ‘Delhi Gate’ dating from 1772/3 (see: Muhaddis, 2011: 277-8). The manuscript, Abniyah-ye Hind, is held at the Library of Uppsala University (Sweden) with the number ‘O Nov. 514 (Zn. 403)’.
    7-1- Features of manuscript
    - The most obvious orthographical feature of the manuscript is bound writing.
    - Inconsistency and fickleness in orthography such as showing “G” (گ), with both “G” (گ) and “K” (ک), writing one word in two forms such as “Gonbad” (گنبد) and “Gonbaḍ” (گنبذ) (= dome), showing the dates by both numbers and letters, and in the case of dates by letters, both bound and unbound writing are used like “نه صد” and “نهصد”.
    - Sometimes inconsistencies and effects of Arabic syntax are seen in the sentences and the expressions, such as matching adjectives and their names such as ‘Raoza-ye Shahia’ (روضه ی شاهیه), ‘Salatin-e Gujaratiyya’ (سلاطین گجراتیه), as well as bringing female predicate to female subject.
    - Using Indian words such as ‘Bigeh’ (بیگه): meaning certain measure of land equal to 48 yards (Nafisi, 1976), ‘Tanke’ (تانکه) meaning water storage (ʻAlī Muḥammad Khān, 1928: 136), ‘Chekle’ (چکله) meaning small market (ibid: 8, Footnote 2), ‘Chouki’ (چوکی) meaning platform and seats (Dehkhoda, 1999), ‘Laka’ (لکه) meaning A hundred thousand (Nafisi, ibid), ‘Mahmoudi’ (محمودی) A kind of silver coin (ibid); furthermore occasionally, words have been written with folksy pronunciations such as "minar" (مینار) instead of "menar" (منار).
    7-2- Text in brief
    The first described building is the foundation of the castle of Ahmadabad, and the last is a tomb and a mosque on ‘Raste-ye Jamalpur’; and in the middle forty three urban constructions are described such as King's Gardens, Kankiri lagoon (Qotbi pool); the tombs of Sultan Ahmad, Shah Abu Torab and ‘Musa Sohag’ places; and the dome and platforms of King's Gardens; adobe large dome; the tombs of Sultan Ahmad’s wives and children, the Dada Hari’s Baoli (a kind of well with a large crater for people to access water); some schools and several mosques.
    The interesting point is that only a few of these mosques have a name or reputation, such as the “Masjed-e A’la” i.e. the largest mosque and the mosque known as the ‘Achhut Coukie’, ‘one and a half minaret mosque’, however, the majority of mosques, which do not have a name, are described based on their locations and the materials used in their building, such as the stone mosque near the gate of Kharu. Another interesting point is that usually several urban constructions such as mosques, schools, monasteries, lagoons and ponds have been built near or connected to each other.
    Conclusion
    Since manuscripts are always the first-hand and fundamental resources in researches, the edition of them is indispensable. The present manuscript, buildings of India, is a unique, eloquent, privileged and brief work from which in addition to getting acquainted with the city of Ahmedabad and some of its history and geography, one can obtain information on the depth and extent of the influence of Islam and of the Persian language and literature in that region. The abundance of mosques and their related buildings such as tanks and the introduction of each building in Persian, are proof of the above-mentioned claim.
    In addition to the historical and geographical information on the buildings of Ahmedabad, which is very important, this brief work offers a clear picture of the Persian language that was common in India as well as the extend of Indian Farsi writers’ knowledge of Farsi and their style of prose. A prose combined with Indian vocabulary and pronunciation, occasionally with a chronogram in poetry, and at the same time, simple and far from the linguistic and literary complexities. Because of having these special linguistic and literary features that are intriguing in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and style of the Farsi language common in India at that time, this work could be the basis for future research in the field of historical geography as well as in linguistic and literary research.
    Keywords: Abniyah-ye Hind, Ahmadabad, manuscript, stone mosque, building
  • Hosain Khakpour *, Alireza Heydarinasab, Abdolghani Kordi Pages 25-42
    Introduction
     Dr. Hassan al-Din Ahmad, the famous author and Qur'an scholar of the Indian subcontinent, completed his doctorate at the National Islamic University of Delhi, and he was once the Minister of the Endowment of India. He wrote his Qur'anic thoughts in two Urdu and English languages that the most recent and important views of the researcher are reflected in the book entitled:"A New Approach to the Study of the Quran". This book contains new ideas and methods about the Qur'an, which have not yet been translated into Persian and have been criticized for literary and linguistic perspectives. So the consideration and evaluation of this contemporary scholar views is important. The mentioned book was written in 1997 it was decorated with a new edition by the world's best books publication in Delhi in 2004 and 2008. The book "A New Approach to the Study of the Qur'an" contains a brief introduction and five chapters. Chapter 1: “the Quran technique includes: repetition, Qur'an and poetry, weight and rhymes, etc. Chapter 2: "The rhetoric Science in the Qur'an" that discusses analogy, allegory, metaphor, "symbol" and ... Chapter 3: "Quranic terms", about the end terminology, Allah, Faith, and so on. The fourth chapter of Quranic interpretation explains some of the Quranic concepts. Chapter 5: investigates Verses, words and beautiful names in three parts, 32 beautiful verses, 41 words and 12 names. Referring to the importance of thinking and reasoning in the Holy Quran, Hassan al-Din Ahmed emphasized the correctness and thinking and reasoning of the Holy Qur'an and considered his book a response to this direction of the Quran.
    Descriptive research method
    The current study was done by descriptive-analytical method. The basic, methodological and final damage of Hasan al-Din Ahmed view are depicted after translating his view from the main source and expressing his vision about the symbol.
    Discussion
    Hassan al-Din Ahmad tries to briefly summarize the "symbol" in the above-mentioned book. His expression has good points, but with shortcomings and defects. The most important mistakes in his view can be considered as a method, basis, conceptual, and case-based. The method and manner in which Hassan al-Din Ahmed expressed in the discussion of the symbol can be considered in several ways. Using non-original sources, the failure to refer the Muslim commentators, the inappropriate influence of Orientalists and the confusion between the use of symbol and symbolism language, are considered among the most harmful method drawbacks of Hasan al-Din's perspective on the symbol. Basically, this perspective faces challenges, the most important of which are the issues ahead. A: failure to observance linguistic rules, so that the mere use of a great deal cannot be regarded as a symbolic reason. B: Lesser precision in the transcendental truths in the words of Quranic Hasan al-Din Ahmad has not paid much attention to the fact that the Holy Qur'an was revealed from our horizon and so has addressed to supernatural issues. C: Ignoring the external implications of words and contention of surfaces, D: involvement in the interpretation with view is also among these damages. Conceptually, although it is brief and useful, but there are some drawbacks. The ambiguity of defining the symbol, codifying it, reducing the role of tradition, and the desire for extreme Quranicism, are some of these drawbacks. In addition, when he defined symbol, considered it in the context of meaningful text, but did not actually adhere to it. The main challenge of Hassan al-Din Ahmad is in the case argument. The cases that Hasan al-Din has brought to bear as evidence for his purpose are flair and controversial. The author, unlike the standard word and commentary on the specific intention of the words, has deprived of surface meaning and has not provided a license or counterpart for symbolism and passing of appearance. The behavior that is contrary to the rational way and in fact is deconstruction in the linguistic tradition. For example, the word "morning" is considered as a symbol of punishment, when firstly: it can be absolute and secondly accompany with words such as torment, punishment, Seyhe (heavenly voice) etc., to provide the space necessary to transfer the reader's mind to punishment.
    Conclusion
    The symbol is one of the most influential and fascinating ways by which human beings display their imagination in an overwhelmingly controversial way. Hassan al-Din Ahmad also states the symbol discussion based on the scope of the book and briefly, that while it is beneficial in many areas, can be judged and evaluated from different respects. Utilizing non-original sources, failure to refer to commentators, the influence of Orientalists, and ... are the drawbacks of this effect in method dimension. On the other hand, the contradiction between the basis and the act in explaining the symbol on the basis of the text, the suppression of the role of tradition and the involvement in the Quranism, the uncertain interpretation and involvement in the interpretation with view, the failure to observe the linguistic rules, ... are the basic shortcomings of the thought of Hasan al-Din. One of his most important challenges is the examples that he has presented as evidence of his purpose. The word "morning" is considered as a symbol of punishment, when firstly: it be absolute and secondly accompany with words such as torment, punishment, Seyhe (heavenly voice) etc., to provide the space necessary to transfer the reader's mind to punishment.
    Keywords: Hassan Al-Din Ahmad, Symbol, Sub continental, Quran
  • Nezamali Dehnavai * Pages 43-60
    The Naqshbandî lineage in Kurdistan was not influential and well known in the beginning of the 19th century, whereas, the Qâdirî in Kurdistan had a lot of influence in that region. The Naqshbandî lineage was active in some areas in the Ottoman Empire such as Istanbul, Mecca, and Medina, but the main center of his lineage was in India on that time. In India, the great leader, Abdullah Dihlawî, known as Shâh Ghulâm ‘Alî, sent his caliphs to different regions of Islamic world,, one of them was Mîrzâ Abdul Rahîm, entered Kurdistan and brought Mawlânâ Khâlid, who had been studying contemplative and narrated Islamic Sciences and had permission to guide in Qâdirî lineage with himself to India in 1224 AH. To meet great leader of the Naqshbandî lineage Shâh Ghulâm ‘Alî. Mawlânâ Khâlid was in India with Dihlawî for nearly one year and then he received permission to guide disciples in Cheshtî, Kubrawî, Suhrawardî, Qâdirî and Naqshbandî lineage. Additionally, he received permission from Shâh Abd-ul –Aziz Muhaddith (d.1823 in Delhi) to receive the Hadith from the six Canonical Sonni Hadith Collections.
    Since 1226 A.H. and after the return of Mawlânâ Khâlid to Kurdistan, the Naqshbandî lineage became active in Kurdistan and acquired prominent situation among people as well as the Bâbân rulers due to extensive effort of Mawlânâ Khâlid and his caliphs. Documents analysis reveals that Mawlânâ Khâlid was active in both branches of "Sharia" and "Tariqat" simultaneously. Mawlânâ Khâlid was supermen leader of Naqshbandî lineage on that time, more ever, he was also prominent pious, expert orator, and, famous poet, and generally he was distinguished in both field of contemplative and narrated sciences. He taught his disciples commentary and Hadith as well as comportment way in Sulaimani, Baghdad and Damascus. The caliphs of Mawlânâ Khâlid were the main reason for increasing his power to distribute his lineage which some of them had had previous experience in the fields of religious jurisprudence, commentary and Hadith, and some of them had been teaching for years.
    Joining of some grandees and Shaikhes of Qâdirî lineage to Naqshbandî Mujjadadî Khâlîdî lineage in Kurdistan, Levant and other parts of Islamic World in addition to the charismatic leadership of Mawlânâ Khâlid played an important role in the rapid distribution and expansion of this lineage in the Ottoman Empire territory, especially in Kurdistan. Because of huge influence of Naqshbandî lineage in Kurdistan, some Qâdirî Sheikhs, especially in the Bâbân Emirate region found them selves to be cornered and started confrontation with Mawlânâ Khâlid. As a result of the confrontation with Qâdirî,s Sheikhs, and also because of political conflicts among the ruling Bâbân family, Mawlânâ forsook Sulaimaniyah and moved to Baghdad.
    From the first entrance of Mawlânâ to Baghdad to Sulaymaniyah in 1228 A.H. till the second travel of him to Baghdad in 1236 A.H. his تکیه in Sulaimaniyah witnessed the presence of many disciples from different regions of Islamic World such as Mecca, Medina, Bethlehem, Damascus, Aleppo, Shemydinan, Mardin, Urfa, Diyarbakir, Afghanistan, Dagestan, Transoxina, Egypt, Oman and Morocco. This intensive presence of Mawlânâ Khâlid disciples had close relationship with the activities of some notable scholars such as Seyyed Asad Sadr al-Din Heidarî, Seyyed Sabaghollah Heidarî, Seyyed Obeid Allah Heidarî, Allameh Yahyâ Mazury Emadî, Allameh Abdulrahman Ruzbehanî, Allâmeh Abdollâh Jalî, Faqîh Sheikh Osmân, Sirâjdin Tvilhayy and Mullâh Mustâfâ the second presence of Mawlânâ in Baghdad,
    The political and cultural capital of Iraq did not reduce the range of cultural and propagandistic activities of him, contrary this city became the main and his traditions, but has become a major center for his lineage and many grandees from the all parts of Islamic world gathered there around him. The constant growth of the fame and reputation of Mawlânâ Khâlid led to that some political and religious leaders in Damascus invited him to this city. Finally, Mawlânâ accepted their invitation and moved to Damascus with a lot of his caliphs and disciples in 1238 H.A.
    Mawlânâ Khâlid stayed in Damascus for four years and during this period, in collaboration with his Caliphs, trained notable caliphs. He appointed some of his famose caliphs in mosques and religions schools for teaching and guidance of people, and the influence and reputation of Naqshbandî lineage enhanced enormously, to the extent some distinguished people from North Africa and the other Islamic areas had been guided by him and his caliphs, among them Sayyed Abdul Qâdir al-Jazâyerî one of the most prominent Algerian campaigner
    Spatial context for guidance and education in the two areas of "Sharia" and "Tariqat", and the emphasis on the priority of the "Sharia" played a fundamental role in the development of the aforementioned lineage. The selection of strategic and outstanding political, religious and economic place like Sulaimaniyah, the capital of the Bâbân Kurdish Emirate, Baghdad, the main center of the Ottoman Empire in Iraq, Damascus, the capital of the Levant, Istanbul, Baytulmuqqads, the firs kiblah (qiblah) of the Muslims, Mecca, Medina and the other locations for the presence of caliphs and attendance of caliphs indicated to a logical selection. Role and the character of Mawlânâ Khâlid in the quantitative and qualitative development of the to Naqshbandî Mujjadadî lineage was so valuable that after him a branch known as Khâlidî was formed and till now is the largest and most distributed lineage in the Western part of the Islamic world.
    Developments in the political structure of the Ottoman Empire toward of more centralization and elimination of the Janissaries and their intellectual supporters, the Bektashi from bureaucratic system in Istanbul, provided a suitable ground for Naqshbandî,s disciples for gradual infiltrating into intellectual and bureaucratic system of the Ottoman Empire. Mawlânâ Khâlid, the super me preceptor of the Naqshbandî Mujjadadî lineage in Ottoman Empire, with his notable Caliphs could use this appropriate political and social conditions for extending their thoughts.
    This research uses historical research method and relying on an analytical descriptive approach to investigate the role and relationship of the full leader of the Naqshbandî Mujjadadî lineage in India in shaping this trend in Kurdistan and how it is dispersed in the Ottoman Empire. The findings show that Mawlânâ Khâlid, with the attraction of many of the elders, scholars of various sciences and Ottoman rulers was able to bring Naqshbandî lineage to the righteous position in Kurdistan as well as the entire territory of the Ottoman Empire. The prominent role of Mawlânâ Khâlid and her caliphs in the rapid expansion of their network order led to the transfer of the Naqshbandî lineage from India to Ottoman after the death of Shâh Ghulâm ‘Alî Dihlawî, and the branch of Khâlidî would be formed in this way. Although the propaganda discourse of Mawlânâ Khâlid and his Caliphs was not antagonistic to the ruling, shortly after his death, this lineage was turn into colonialist discourse and, in some areas, became antagonistic.
    Keywords: Sufi Naqshbandi, Maulana Khalid Shar Zuri, India, Kurdistan, ottoman
  • Abbas Sarafrazi *, Maryam Ebrahimi Pages 61-78
    Persian language and literature have a long history in India. About the history of the prevalence of Persian language and literature in the subcontinent, it comes from historical documents that in the third century AH, for the first time, the Indians had the opportunity to become effectively familiar with Persian speakers. With the arrival of Ghaznavids, a steady stream of conquest of India begun. Although Ghaznavids were Turkish, the Persian language was the cultural, the official and the governmental language, and at the time of their rule, Lahore first became the second capital and then the capital of the dynasty, where the Persian language became the language of the Iranian elite. One of the most important features of the Persian language in the Indian subcontinent is the inclusion of Persian sentences and words on the coins, it happened during the reign of the Mongols over the subcontinent, In Indian coins before the Mongols, Persian words are less visible. And since then, people who understood the Persian language transformed it into coins, and even added Persian poems to coins of the Indian Mongols and other Indian indigenous governments. Persian language was the second language of the country before the British entered India, and the official, cultural and scientific language. The officialism of the Persian language as the language of religion, politics, literature, and art in the subcontinent led to the creation of many Persian works in that land by subcontinent or Iranian people and other immigrants. "Many works show the influence of the Iranian language culture and art in the subcontinent. In the court of Delhi, the king and courtiers all spoke in Persian, in which the Persian language in India was a scientific language and a progressive one and a reason for honor and dignity. The letter written by the kings themselves, such as the notes of Jahangir Noor al-Din, the son of Akbar, which all are in Persian, predicate the authenticity of that language in India (Bahar, 2011: 3: 257). The research will answer the following questions:From when Persian coins become popular in India?
    Do Persian coins in India have become effective in expanding Persian language?
    Did the British East India Company's efforts and skullduggeries slacken the Persian language in India?
    Therefore, the hypotheses are as follows: 1- During the period of the Indian Mongols, many coins were multiplied in Persian
    2- Coins have been effective in the development of Persian language. 3- The British and East India Company subvert Persian language with colonial planned efforts were one of the factors of the Persian sluggishness in India.
    The research's aim is about the historical and literary significance of coins in the Indian Mughals which is not written anything about it. In this study, coins of the Mongolian period of India were identified and examined in terms of the importance of Persian language prevalence in the subcontinent. And it's one of the first things to do.which is not written anything about it..
    Research Method
    This research is done by descriptive-analytical method and content analysis. The theoretical foundations of the research have been identified and analyzed on the basis of historical sources and cognitive findings of Persian poems and slogans on coins.
    The Discussion
    One of the most important Persian language features in the Indian subcontinent is the stamp of Persian sentences on coins; it seems that it has happened since the rule of the Mongols in the subcontinent. People who were familiar with Persian language and who collaborated in the Indian Mongolian government, who were interested in important jobs and dignities, and given the fact that Persian was the language of the official and administrative, and everyone was familiar with it added the phrases, names and even Persian poems to the coins of the Indian Moguls and other local Indian governments. It reflects the deep influence of Persian civilization, culture and art, language and manuscript, and literature in this era, although the first coin was multiplied by Persian poet in Mohammad Karim Shah Amir Gujarat age. (842-855) During the other period of the Mongol kings, the Persian sentences, especially Persian poems, were written and multiplied for various events, in particular, the events of the kings. The period of the Jahangir was multiplied by the monthly coins, with the names of those months, such as April, May, and others. A number of them are introduced in this research, and it was a new innovation in the spread of Persian poems over coins. Another new issue in Jahangir's coins was the introduction of verses of the cities in where the coin was multiplied (Abdolsattar bin Ghasim Lahori 1385:211-213) Jahangir speaks in a historic book called Tozak Jahangiri or Jahangir, written in Persian by himself, about the changes that have been made to coins: On these coins, Persian poems are carved and says:" In no covenant is a metal other than copper coin, and the golden and silver penny of my invention is the name of the metal of Jahangiri"(Jahangir Gorkani 1359:238,258) The presence of the British in the form of an East India Company in the subcontinent was the beginning of the end of the golden age of Persian literature in India; the British at the very beginning of their presence noticed the dramatic influence of Persian and Islam on the culture of Indian people and sought to overcome it and succeeded in replacing English, while the East India Company multiplied its coin in Persian at the beginning.
    Conclusion
    By carefully studying the coins, the dusty and forgotten history of the past century is revealed, coins nowadays play a significant role in recognizing the religions and faiths and the tendencies of the kings, By studying how the progress and degeneration can be learned in different periods and among the relatives. Today, almost nobody speaks Persian in the Indian subcontinent, while up until the close proximity to us; the Persian language was the official, scientific, cultural and educational language of the subcontinent. In addition to the vast signs of Persian language that left many works, buildings and books in India, many coins with diverse Persian poems have been another glowing examples of Persian language domination in India, a domination that even the East Indian company has forced It was accepted that the coins were multiplied in Persian for a long time, but gradually several factors contributed to the weakening of the Persian language in India, in which the prevalence of English language was one of these factors. The poems and names in Persian in coins that have once been prevalent in India have been indicative of the widespread and proliferation of Persian language and literature, culture and language in this vast land. Coins nowadays play a significant role in recognizing the religions and faiths and the tendencies of the kings. By studying it, one can understand the progress and decline of civilizations in different periods and among the tribes.
    Keywords: Indian subcontinent, Persian language, coins, East India Company, Indian Mongols
  • Fatemeh Sadeghinaghdalioliya *, Nasrolah Emami Pages 79-98
    Introduction
    After Akbar Shah's accession to the throne In the Great Mongol Dynasty during 1556- 1605, as acknowledged by almost all researchers, the star of Persian poetry flaunts beyond the borders of Iran and it also initiated in the Indian subcontinent. Historians and researchers believe that his50   years kingdom period was heyday and upsurge of Persian language and literature and showing of Iranian culture and civilization in that land.  Researchers consider many political, social, and cultural factors to be effective in such upsurge. The purpose of the current study is to analyze the history of Persian language and literature in the Indian subcontinent by focusing on the approach of Akbar Shah Gvrkany to Persian poetry and poems and his effective role in the prevalence of that in the Indian subcontinent. In this regard, we should find an answer for this fundamental question: What is the role of Akbar Shah Gvrkany in the prevalence of Persian poetry and poetry in the Indian subcontinent during the second half of the tenth century?
    Research methodology
    This study has been carried out in the descriptive-analytical and content analysis methods. In this way that, first, using authentic historical sources, we investigate Akbar Shah Gvrkany's approach to Persian poetry and Persian poets and then, in order to prove more and more of the subject, the manifestations of this theme from the perspective of the poems of the five prominent poets who lived in 10th century, namely, Ghazali , Feizi, Orfi, Naziri and Kahi has reviewed and presented.  
    Discussion
    The second half of the tenth century, coincided with the rule of Akbar Shah Gvrkany, was the golden age of Persian poem and poetry in the Indian subcontinent. Undoubtedly, the fertility of Persian poetry and literature, inspired by the kings and princes of Timurid which began from reign of Mirza Shahrokh (Farhani Monfared, 2003: 69, Safa, 1999: 4/39 ) and his son Mirza Baysonqor (Parsaye Aghdas, 1986: 44) and during the reign of Sultan Hussein Baqrah at Herat literary and artistic center, reached perfection and resumed it position with the coming of Jalal al-Din Mohammad Akbarshah. Although Akbar did not literally read and write, but in recognition of many historical books and according to his contemporary notices, including Allami in Akbarnameh, it is clear that he knew Persian quite good and was familiar with the works of great poets, like Hafez and Molavi, he even wrote poetry in this language (Badayuoni, 2001: 2/186). Akbar's interest in poetry, especially Persian poetry, was as much that took poets with him in his recreational and war trips e.g. Badayouni while describing the departure of Akbar to conquer Bengal wrote “during day, he went out of the boat for hunting and tour and in night he attended in talk about science, poetry, reminders and repetitions.” (Badayuoni, 2001: 2/120). Sometimes the poets presented their own occasional poems to him during the journey (Heravi, 1927: 2/336). Through historical evidence, it is easy to find the valuable traditions of Akbarshahi and observe that how in the poetic tradition, he gave the government of a district to a poet (Heravi, 1927: 2/337). At the end of his reign, Akbar focused his attention on poetry and literature, and he trained many literature scholars and poets. His first, most important and most effective move on this path was to create the position of Malek ol-Shoara'i for the first time in the Indian subcontinent. Ghazali Mashhadi, an Iranian immigrant poet, was the first who succeeded in achieving this status (Ghandehari, 1962: 132). After him, this position given to a Hindu origin poet, but Farsi teller, known as Feyzi Fayyazi. In addition to his passion for poetry, Akbar also respected Persian poets highly, and the poets had a special place in his court, as sometimes, in addition to the position of the poet, poets took over the offices of the state. Akbar used poets more as the ambassador and representative (Badayuoni, 2001: 2/186). Akbar was very obsessed with Farsi Language and literature and, it made all the grandee before him from Mirza Abdo-l-rahim Khane Khanan, who was his greatest Marshal, to his subordinate kings and emirs in Kandahar, Kabul, and Sindh attempted for training and keeping Farsi teller conversationalists, to the point that Abdo-l-rahim Khane Khanan competed with Akbar shah in encouragement and support of the poets and scholars (Nafisi, 1929: 615). As a matter of fact, Akbar shah’s greatest virtue was Farsi teller conversationalist’s encouragement and respect, and granting them great assets and blessing. This commendable action was the main reason of attracting Farsi tellers of Iran and India to him and also a great motive in persuading talented of the era to dedicate their lives to Farsi literature and poetry. In general, Akbar shah’s oration and passion for poetry, constitution of poetry-reciting meetings, creating the position of Malek ol-Shoara, attributing responsibilities and positions to the poets and finally generosity and gift offering were the main factors that made Farsi poetry distributed in the subcontinent of Akbar shah era. 
    Conclusion
    Although the Persian language and literature has always had valuable position as an official language of the reign from its entrance to the Indian subcontinent especially during Muslim states who ruled before Mughal dynasty and then it was also the official language during the reign of Baber and Homayoun Gvrkany, undoubtedly the apex of its prevalence in the subcontinent was in the second half of the tenth Hijri century concurrent with the reign of the third king of Great Mughal dynasty-that is Akbar Shah Gvrkany. Akbar had a strong cultural background; his mother was from Iran and his unique agent Beiram Khane khanan was also a full-scale Iranian. Therefore; from the beginning of his reign he had a strange interest to spread the Persian language and literature to the point that historians believe that he was more interested in Persian language than Turkish language which was his ancestors' language. Through historical books most of which recorded daily events in Akbar' court we find out that except from political, social, and cultural factors, Akbar's positive attitude, special attention, and immense support of poetry and poesy were the main factor for the development of Persian language and literature. It's manifestation is realized in recognizing Persian language as the formal language in Akbarshah's territory, his companionship and his proximity with poets in all situations, their  always being accepted in his court, appointing poets to important and sensitive jobs, and finally creating the post of poet laureate. In addition to the first hand historical resources, the results of examining the poetic evidence suggests that Akbarshah's eloquence  and rhetoric as well as his immense interest and attention to the poets and poetry especially Persian poets and poetry were the main factors for ascending the Persian poet and poetry in the subcontinent in his time.
    Keywords: Indian subcontinent, Akbar shah Gvrkany, Persian Poem, poetry
  • Narjes Banosabouri *, Asieh Zabihnia Pages 99-120
    Hassan Dehlawi is of prominent Persian poets of India in 7th and 8th solar centuries. His fame is mainly drawn upon his lyrics wherein metaphor is used to create dynamic and extensive images due to his extensive imagination. Metaphor enables the poets to repeat the same meaning in various phrases in a way that there is no trace of repetition. It instead adds to the strength of the phrase. Heart is one of the concepts used frequently in the poems of Hassan Dehlawi. The conceptualization of heart in body is in direct connection with understanding the mind and is generally perceived via metaphor. Therefore, the relation of body organs to each other particularly the relation of heart with the other body organs are aptly depicted through metaphor.
    Heart as a central part of human body is of significance. Studying the conceptualizations that was made in Persian language shown that most of it occurs in this organ; Heart plays more important role in such conceptualizations than the other organs. 
    Heart as a means of attaining theism has always been under the focus of poets and the mystics. Heart is the essence of existence, divine elegance, and the spiritual place of human body and also known as the center of divine knowledge and love. This research is conducted to investigate the relation of heart conceptualization with other body organs in the lyrics of Hassan Dehlawi based upon the contemporary theory of metaphor. Metaphor occurs on substitution axis due to the selection of a linguistic sign instead of the other sign in terms of similarity; the selected unit in addition to keeping the original concept would also achieve a secondary concept. In fact, metaphor is a means through which the conceptions of experimental domain are perceived in terms of other domains. In cognitive linguistics, using human body and organs is taken into serious consideration as a source for cultural conceptualization of everyday concepts. 
    This is a descriptive-analytic study based upon the conceptions of the contemporary theory of metaphor or conceptual metaphor. The conceptualization of heart in body is in direct connection with understanding the mind and is generally perceived via metaphor. In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is defined as  one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. A conventional shorthand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: conceptual domain A is conceptual domain B, that is called a conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of another. Acccording to cognitive linguistics, three kinds of conceptual metaphor have been distinguished: structural, ontological and orientational. In structural metaphor, the source domain provides a relatively rich knowledge structure for the target concept. In other words, the cognitive function of these metaphors is to enable speakers to understand target A by means of the structure of source B. Ontological metaphors provide much less cognitive structuring for target concepts than structural ones do. Their cognitive job seems to be to merely give a new ontological status to general categories of abstract target concepts and to bring about new abstract entitie. Orientational metaphors provide even less conceptual structure for target concepts of than ontological ones. Their cognitive job, instead, is to make a set of target concepts coherent in our conceptual system.Heart as a central body organ is of significance. This research is conducted to investigate the relation of heart conceptualization with other body organs in the lyrics of Hassan Dehlawi.
    The present study is to respond to this fundamental question that which of the structural, ontological, and orientational kinds of conceptual metaphor are used in conceptualizations of heart in relation with other body organs in the lyrics of Hassan Dehlawi.
    The findings of this study demonstrate that the contemporary theory of metaphor is a right means to describe the relation of heart with the other body organs in the lyrics of Hassan Dehlawi. Studying the available metaphors showed that Dehlawi used many kinds of ontological metaphors to describe the relation of heart with other body organs. The metaphors of “body organ is object/particle”, “body organ is human”, and “body organ is vessel” played a very important role in this conceptualization.
    In so doing, each of the body organs in these conceptualizations connect to each other through conceptual metaphors. Sometimes a body is conceptualized as human and the other as object; sometimes both will appear as human, sometimes one of them appear as human and the other one as vessel, sometimes both appear as object, sometimes one is like vessel and the other one as a container.
    In many lyrics of Hassan Dehlawi, heart is conceptualized as a vessel. In the couplet considered, some few cases of the structural metaphor of “body organ is a place” were found. In addition, the combined use of metaphors added to the richness of the conceptualizations. The amalgamation of metaphors is a strong process that provides conceptual metaphor into combined form and various kinds and facilitate the efficiency as well as the comprehensibility of metaphors.
    Keywords: Contemporary Theory of Metaphor, Heart, Body Organs, Lyrics of Hassan Dehlawi
  • Mohammadreza Askarani * Pages 121-138
    Introduction
    Britain has been widely represented in the Iranian markets since the middle of the Qajar period Relationships between Iranian businessmen and India also increased. Iranian businessmen had branches in Istanbul, Moscow and Cairo, and they were doing a lot of bargains.
    The main issue of the research is the quality and quantity of trade relations between Iran and India. And the other question is, how did these relations affect the social changes in Iran?
    The main question is, how did Iran's trade relations with India affect the Iranian economy in the first years of the 20th century? And another question is, how was the quantity and quality of trade relations with India before and after the Constitutional Revolution?
    The aim is to recognize the dimensions of Iran-India trade relations in one of the most sensitive periods in Iranian and world history and the author tries to understand how much Iranian society has influenced from western culture and civilization. This impact was due to Britain's presence in India.
    This research is due to the fact that the years leading up to World War I are among the most turbulent periods of Iranian history and Some of the reasons for the failure of the constitutional movement can be identified through research into the economic events of those years. The author tries to deal with various aspects of Iran-India trade at the doorstep of the Constitutional Revolution with a new perspective and examine the performance of the British Indian government in trading with Iran and the economic impact of this trade on Iranian society, especially in the years before the outbreak of the First World War
    The research approach is "qualitative" in the "analytical description" method. The researcher describes an event with scientific criteria and then explains and interprets them. The data of this research are compiled by "documentary" method and based on "library" resources and the writer, using historical sources such as travel logs, memoirs and documents, tries to first "historical description" and then give a new "analysis" of the subject. 
    Discussion
    After concluding the Golestan agreement, England was able to benefit from the contention between Iran and Russia and greatly increase its exports to Iran. In the late nineteenth century, England challenged the Ottoman presence in the Persian Gulf and expelled that empire from the scene. At the same time, Iranian businessmen in India formed various associations, and Zoroastrians in India also played a significant role in trade with Iran. These activities had a great impact on Iranian trade and businessmen became familiar with the new ways of trading. The thriving trade led to the formation and expansion of new capitalists in Iran, which were merchants of a wide range of this class. Iranian businessmen realized that buying directly from Europe was more cost effective than trading with their agents in Iranian cities.They established companies for this purpose.The presence of Iranian businessmen in world trade has created a strong social layer that became critics of Iran's politics and government due to the relationship with the advanced world of European and American societies.The national economy movement, which supported the boycott of foreign commodities and the promotion of domestic goods, began in this class and very soon, this innovative class would have called for political participation, one of the reasons for the constitutional revolution.
    After the constitutional movement, the power of the Qajar government was reduced and insecurity was found in the roads of the central and southern regions of the country. The existence of bandits in different parts of the country slowed the Iranian business trend. Despite the efforts of the Iranian government and the ruler of Fars province to secure roads, Britain's intervention increased the turmoil.Though these would Threatened British trade, it was an excuse for the government to increase political pressure on the Iranian government.
    With the outbreak of World War I and the rise of the Russian Revolution, Britain's influence increased on the coast of the Gulf and the eastern and southern regions of the country. An important part of the post-Constitutional riot was the result of interventions of European countries therefore Britain had the opportunity to legalize its influence in Iran by forming the "South Persia Rifles". The greater presence of Britain in the Persian Gulf enabled Britain to take over the life of Iran. 
    Conclusion
    The trade exchanges between Iran and India, which expanded from the middle of the Qajar period, encouraged Iranian businessmen to establish business corporations and led to a significant increase in European goods and, consequently, a reduction in domestic production. British colonial purposes have led some domestic crops to be replaced by crops such as opium, tobacco and cotton. In this way, in addition to the withdrawal of gold and silver from the country, the pattern of cultivation was also affected, which showed undesirable effects in the following years. Some merchants who had trade with India invested in the industries and shipping lines of that country and made a lot of wealth. They applied for commercial rights like their counterparts in advanced countries.
    With the issuance of a decree at the time of Nasir al-Din Shah, Zoroastrians were exempted from additional taxes and Zoroastrian merchants gained success in business with India due to the efforts of Indian Zoroastrians. The merchant established a bank and, through paying donations, helped the liberation movement. Iranian businessmen residing in India formed associations and trade unions and Iranian political representatives in India also presented recommendations to the Iranian government to improve the trade and economy. What made these attempts to be foiled was the Russian and British interventions and their colonial rivalry. The two countries increased their military presence by using social unpleasant conditions after the Constitutional Revolution. And occupied the land of Iran at the start of the First World War.
    Keywords: Trading, India, English, Iran, Constitutional
  • Susan Feizi Gilandeh *, Mohammadreza Roozbeh, Ali Heidari Pages 139-158
    Introduction
    The study of common rituals among people of different lands and finding their origins leads us to some commonalities among different nations. The incarnation of the widow at the burning ceremony of the body of her husband and accompanying him, has being done entitled as Sati or Sith.Sati and its various forms among Hindus dates back to the era from 1000 BC to 500 BC and is considered to be more ancient than Brahmin traditions. After the humanitarian actions of one of the most important modern correctional organizations entitled as Brahmo Samajj announced the abolition of Sati by Bentinck (British ruler) in 1829. Some scholars argue that this tradition has a mythic origin in India and Rome (Gardner, 2009: 75-77).This ritual in its successive deaths and its altruistic form in many burial grounds has shown its inhumane face and in its own form the symbol of love, loyalty, chastity in the love of the poetry system Shown as "Sati Nameh" or with other titles in India and Iran. The reflection of this ritual in Persian literature dates back to the late fourth century and early fifth century AH. The common theme of these romance, which is part of the Persian lyric literature, represents the Hindu community beliefs andcredence in which there is no trace ofSati’s violence and inhumane treats against widows and the mental and psychological pressures dominating Indians’ traditional society and social domination of the traditional Indian society and patriotic view of the Hindu religion and the determination of the woman and the lack of a desire for her independent social existence. This research examines the place of Sith's ritual in different religions and beliefs of different nations and their similarities and differences, and the existence of the relationship between successive deaths and Sith's beliefs about its causes and beliefs, and aims to irradiate the unknowns. According to the existing documents and archaeological studies in different regions, including Egypt, China, Russia, Rome and Tatar, the intention is to show that, "Sati" is not primarily an act of self-will and a sign of love and loyalty, but somethingcompulsory and it had been initially in royal families for certain reasons.
    Research Methodology
    The present research is a descriptive-analytical study. Theoretical foundations of the research are based on historical records and objective observations of writers and poets including Ibn Battutah, Taswaji, Nasser Khosrow, Khalqdir Hashemi Abbasi, Will Durant, Mustamli Bukhari, Shooshtari, Shamloo, Anand Ram, Nowei, Sirjafi, Ramhormoziand Marco Polo. The general setting is based on the practice of "sati" ritualsin India and its self-willformand compulsory successive deaths around the world.All documents are going to be investigated through the rest of the present study.
    Discussion
    As a result of the violent behaviors against widows in Indian community there have been a lot of self-immolations followed by the death of spouse. This has been regarded as a response to pressures imposed on her. Sati was just in some cases women’s own decisions in response to accept a painful death that was a sign of loyalty and chastity and love, and this self-inspired form is depicted beautifully in Indian romance. This type of suicides and physical harassments have been in Iran too. Iraj mourn, burning the garden and the residence and crying over them, self-harm and ultimately servants’ suicide for death of Foroud, Shirin and Khosrow Parviz, all of a friendly suicide, are some examples of this kind. Burning the corpse and following that self-immolation to show loyalty and love, indicates the importance and sanctity of the element of fire among Indians.  The sacredness of the fire on the one hand, and the attention to its cleansing properties- and regarding the deaths, eradicating their sins-  on the other hand, is rooted in their religious beliefs.The sanctity of this element in Iran and India was so fervent that the  test for abandonment and condemnation was determined by passing over the fire. (Vahedoost, 2004: 186). In other regions, king’s wives and his soldiers, servants and horses were buried together with the corpse which can be considered as another form of such ritual. Although committing these violent actions against widows and young ladies in a form of Sati has had different types, what is the same in all cases is that an alive person is killed while breathing and it seems that all these cruel actions are rooted in a common belief among different tribes and communities. This has been usually done on women and in successive deaths and its compulsory type in many grave lands has shown its real face. Historical documents show successive deaths among the tribes of northern Europe, the Slavs, the Baltics, the Indians of North America, and the Incas as a collective ritual and the establishment of one or more religious ceremonies with or without consent.
    Conclusion
    "Sati" is one of the common rituals introduced in different forms throughout the life of humankind and has continued for a long time, and perhaps there would be the possibility of existing some relationships between “Sati” and religiousgift ceremonies and sacrifices in different communities. The familiarity of the Persians with the Hindu Sati in addition to cultural relations in different periods can be attributed to the indigenous ethnic groups and to what is known as mass memory.Rites and religious ceremonies may change over the course of the era, but in most cases, their generalizations remain stable in the minds of the public, and sometimes eliminate idealistic and desirable images contrary to their existential and sometimes violent reality they leave behind. In addition to the minds, these beliefs have been recorded in paintings, sculptures, songs, and especially in the literature of nations, and they address a part of our past, and what by studying them and discovering commons, is possible to find the roots of many traditions and rituals, and to show similarities in different geographic environments.This can be justifiedby common mythologies and ancient shared paradigms asthe mental implications among different ethnic groups. “Sati” has been made in a few cases on a voluntary basis, but what we see in the implementation of this tradition on a large scale and in its rude and inhumane face throughout the history of different peoples is that rooted in ignorance ofhuman ignorance about the world after death, and belief in the possibility of having a material life there, and ignoring woman’s independent existence in societies.The same reasons implementation of this ritual on women among different communities can be regarded as a kind of ignorance towards women independent and free personalities in the society. It has also been rooted in some common beliefs among living tribes and for Indians believing inreincarnation. The exact investigation of these rites and rituals and many of the affirmed notions in literary texts needs more vigilant studies and discussions. Particularly, when a same theme is repeated in a special period over and over again and gains acceptability. About twenty-three romantic poetries all ending with a same notion, sati indicates the imitative aspects of these poetries, all doing what one has done, could shed light on the acceptance of this notion ignoring its real essence and inhumane violent nature, something regarded as the symbol of love and loyalty and paradigm for romance within the community.
  • Batoul Mohsenirad * Pages 159-176
    Introduction
    The Indian nation, because of having many thousand years of ancient history, has influenced the dawn of the world civilization, especially of the Arabic literature, and has remarkably influenced scholars of the Arab world. This is obviously observed in the Arabic prose and poetry of different periods. However, the question that arises is what factors made the Indian culture influence the Arab writers. Perhaps, one of these factors is the efforts Abu Reyhan Biruni undertook to write a book in Arabic. Therefore, his priceless services as “the pioneer of Indian studies”, father of “Indian studies” and the writer of the great work, Critical Study of What India Says, Whether Accepted by Reason or Refused are worthy of research because of reflecting and introducing the rich Indian culture to the whole world as well as to the Arab world. Eventually, the research findings show that Biruni’s work which includes different subjects in different fields such as Indian culture and civilization is notable and peerless. This article consequently studies the wonderful masterpiece of Wadi Al-Bostani, the famous Lebanese writer’s translations of the great Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana into Arabic. These works are the utmost important and precious heritage among the translated works of literature in the Arab world.
    Research methodology
    This study applies descriptive method and relies on historical sources and documents. Mentioning glory and greatness of Indian culture and civilization in Arabic works and describing them requires reference to historical books. It has been tried to shed light on some aspects of so many efforts and services conducted by Arab and non-Arab writers by the use of these historical documents and texts. This study tries to answer these questions: what has been the reason for Arabs’ attention to Indian works since the Age of Ignorance so far? Which period of Arabic literature has been mostly influenced by it? Have these influences affected Arabic language and literature?
    Discussion
    The Arab world, too, like other nations of the world, has had relationships with India for different reasons, and therefore, has been influenced by India’s historical and cultural diversity. Arabic poetic and prose texts are full of Indian terms and literature. The greatest Indian epics like Mahabharata and Ramayana have been translated into Arabic by the Lebanese scholar. Considering the affluence of these works and the results they had on Arabic language and literature in different periods, we decided to introduce some parts of them. First, Abu Reyhan Biruni is introduced with the greatest work ever written about India.
    Critical Study of What India Says, Whether Accepted by Reason or Refused is one of the most famous books about Indian sciences, philosophy and civilization. This book was written in 421 HG, after Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi’s death. It includes subjects such as religiosity of Hindus, philosophy and rules of Indian ceremonies, Hindu society, knowledge and ethics of Indian casts, religious books, Indian arts, astrology, mathematics, linguistics, Sanskrit language, Indian myths, ephemeris calendars and their rules, and influence of Brahmans on Indian society and their sacred beliefs. This book is the fruit of Biruni’s 13 years of research in India.
    It could be claimed, then, that Abu Reyhan Biruni is considered as the pioneer of Indian studies and research, not only in the Arab world, but also outside India. He played a very important role in spread of Indian culture and sciences. However, Indians did not pay much attention to him and did not appreciate this genius as he ought to have been. (Abdurahman Al-Adrashiri, 2003: 22)
    Mahabharata is an epic narrative in verse which belongs to the 5th or 6th century BC. It is in Sanskrit and along with Ramayana, it is one of the two epic narratives of Indian history. It is the great epic work of Hindus in Sanskrit written in 18 books by hundreds of anonymous poets in different times and collected by Vyasa, the Indian sage and scholar. Its Arabic translation is the longest versed work in the world with more than one hundred thousand couplets translated by Wadi Al-Bostani, the contemporary Lebanese writer.
    After finishing the translation, Wadi gifted one copy of it to the Indian leader, Jawaharlal Nehru. After seeing Wadi Al-Bostani’s translation, Jawaharlal Nehru said this sentence: “this translated epic into Arabic is the best gift given to Indian nation by the Arabs”. (Fatima Elyas, 2004: 23)
    Translations done by Wadi Al-Bostani are doubtlessly the best heritage of translation the Arab world has ever seen. The following reasons are given as proof to this cl aim First, Wadi has translated this epic according to Arabic rules and methods. It means that rhythm and rhyming words are according to Arabic literary prosody.
    Second, its content is entirely Indian mythology which is deeply and truly rooted in history.
    An amazing point about this translation is that Wadi has been able to maintain the closeness between Arab reader’s taste and the world of mythology in this work. The reader greatly enjoys Bostani’s Arabicized myth. (Khalil Sheikh, 2007: 21)
    Other works of Wadi include Arabicizing Al-Yazah and translating Rubayyat of Khayam.
    Ramayana, too, which is more literary than Mahabharata, has been translated into Arabic by Wadi Al-Bostani. This great Indian epic narrates the invasion of Amir Ramato cross middle and southern India, over river Ghanej down to Tamul and Talash in order to conquer Lanka Island or the present Sri Lanka. It tries to picture the relational links between India and the East. The epic of Ramayana has been mentioned in Aghani. Wadi has translated Ramayana in twelve parts.He has stated that he was greatly surprised by Indian literature (Fatima Elyas, 2004: 37)
    Conclusion
    India is an expansive and very populated country. It is one of the most mysterious lands on earth. Because of its various races, cultures, religions, and wonderful landscapes, it has attracted and surprised the whole world and specifically the Arab world. Study of Arabic prose and poetry, in different periods, shows that the Arab writers have been greatly motivated and encouraged by Indian literature and culture. However, what is to be noticed here is Abu Reyhan Biruni’s book, Critical Study of What India Says, Whether Accepted by Reason or Refused. This book, which has been written in Arabic, has played an important role in conveying and reflecting the Indian culture in Arabic language. On the other hand, the efforts of the great Lebanese writer, Wadi Al-Bostani in conveying Indian works and culture into the Arab world, and translation of two great Indian epic works into Arabic made us shed light on different aspects of these efforts and services provided by these writers. This study, by relying on descriptive-historical method, tries to deal with these procedures: Introduction of India, reflection of Indian culture and civilization in the poems of Arab poets in different periods, introduction of works such as Critical Study of What India Says, Whether Accepted by Reason or Refused, translation of Mahabharata and Ramayana which have been written about India.
  • Fateme Mashayekhi *, Ahmad Hassaniranjbar, Ali Asghar Halabi Pages 177-194
    Introduction
    The fundamental basis of speech is the “word” and studying the structure of words is a window into the thought sphere and intellectual premises of eloquent speakers. One of the ways to reveal the latent meanings and observations is to create compound phrases. Compared to other languages in the world, with regards to compound creation, Persian is one of the most powerful languages with a very high level of potential. Producing specific compound phrases is one of the crafts many poets have tried their hands on and in the “Indian style” of poetry, the high frequency of compound phrases is a stylistic characteristic (Shafiei Kadkani, 2005: 64). In grammatical textbooks of Persian language, the result of the process of combination, i.e. the creation of a compound word, is discussed in detail. A compound word consists of at least two independent words, which creates an independent lexical unit with a separate record on lexical textbooks and dictionaries (Tabatabaei, 2016: 9). In order to describe compound words, the latent relations in the deep structure of these compounds must be considered. Chomsky believes that if grammar is to be able to describe the linguistic facts and explain the relations between sentences, it is not sufficient to only deal with explicit symbols and relations; rather, it should try to uncover implicit relations present at the deep structure of concrete sentences (Bateni, 1987: 114). Bidel Dehlavi is a poet with an extraordinary talent in reviving words. He has created exceptional compounds in his poetry, and this is one of the most important factors of implicit meaning in his sonnets. Investigating these specific compounds can be a great tool for understanding the aesthetic value of his poetry and thought.
    Research methodology
    This study is a descriptive analytic study which relies on scientific resources of linguistics and grammar. The statistical population of the study is the book of sonnets by Bidel Dehlavi, edited by Akbar Behdarvand in two volumes. First, we will identify the specific compounds in Bidel’s sonnets which are structured as compound words and then, based on their semantic core, they will be divided into endocentric and exocentric compound words. Finally, the grammatical relations among the constituent parts of individual compounds are discussed.
    Discussion
    More than anything, poetry is a play with words. The eccentricity and peculiarity of poetic language causes each poem to become a unique creation and in this process, various linguistic tools such as the order and connotation of words and lexical innovation will help the poet (Ahmadi, 2016: 59). Bidel Dehlavi is the perfect epitome and embodiment of the Indian style of poetry. His sonnets are reflections of ambitious thoughts and eccentric fantasies. In order to voice new thoughts and dabble in intellectual creativities, he would create novel compounds, emphasizing the verbal significance of meaning. In order to appreciate the latent thoughts in the deep structure of these compounds and to discover his colorful fantasy world and poetic depictions, the first step is to evaluate these exceptional compound lexicons. On the concrete and surface level, these compounds are built by putting those words together that for those unfamiliar with Bidel’s style are not related to each other at all; however, this mysterious and enigmatic combination indicates the deep structure, processing and appreciating it will pave the way for understanding the message the poet intended. In fact, the deep structure will determine the semantic and logical relationships among the parts of the sentence and through transformational rules, such as deletion, replacement, insertion, or reordering, deep structure relations are converted into surface structure relations (Bateni, 1987: 114). For instance, we will discuss the compound phrase, “parishan jelveh” (disheveled /face) and its deep structure sentence. The deep structure sentence for this compound can be as follows:“Ou (An) jelveh-ash parishan ast) (His [Its] face is disheveled)
    First transformation: the elimination of the subject of the deep structure sentence: “Jelveh-ash parishan ast”
    Second transformation: eliminating the verb of the deep structure sentence: “Jelveh-ash parishan”
    Third transformation: elimination of attached pronoun: “Jelveh parishan”
    Fourth transformation: repordering the remaining parts: “Parishan Jelveh”
    In Bidel’s poetry, there is this compound phrase “Hosn Parishan Jelveh” (disheveled face of a beauty), where the compound “Parishan Jelveh” is in fact an adjective describing the noun:  a beauty and magnificence whose face is disheveled.
    Describing and explaining exceptional compounds requires much more effort in cases where the compound has a metaphorical or virtual meaning since besides discovering the deep structure sentence and its grammatical relations, understanding the semantic network of the words and their literary and artistic functions is also of utmost importance. With regards to compound words, it is worth mentioning that the meaning of the compound phrase is not always a sum of the individual meanings of its constituent parts. Accordingly, from a semantic standpoint, compound words are divided into the two groups of endocentric and exocentric compound words.
    Conclusion
    With regards to the surface structure, compound words or exceptional combinations in Bidel’s sonnets have been created based on compound word creation patterns in Persian language and they are applied in terms of “nouns, adjectives, and adverbs”. Generally, these words are divided into two categories, the verb-based words (containing the infinitive) and non-verb-based words (lacking the infinitive). The current study investigates the grammatical relations and the semantic cores of these compound words and phrases and it aims to study deep structure sentences in order to discover latent relations in these compounds. With regards to semantic core, these compounds are divided into endocentric and exocentric types. In their deep structures, exocentric compound words contain complete sentences with various grammatical relations such as predicate, complement, subjective, objective, and adverbial relations. Endocentric compounds are divided into adjective compounds and genitive compounds with grammatical relations of description and possession. These relations are illuminated using a number of examples from the sonnets of Bidel Dehlavi.
  • Hamideh Malekpour Afshar *, Abbas Sarafrazi Pages 195-214
    Introduction
     During the reign of Shah Tahmasb, Qandehar was conquered by Safavids. He passed the monarchy to his nephew Sultan Hossien Mirza (Eskandar Beig, 1350: 1 / 92-93V 478). After the death of Sultan Hossein Mirza, his sons who were considered his successors in Qandehar, took refuge in the Mongol court in India (Jahangir, 1357: 149 148). The main objective of this research is to determine the role of  Safavid princes in the Indian Mongol court. This research attempts to answer the following questions: 1. What are the factors which led into the migration of Sultan Hossein Mirza's sons to the Indian Mongol court? 2- How did the Indian Mongols treat the Safavid princes? 3. What were the roles of the Safavid princes in the Indian Mongol court?
    Research Methodology
    The writers have tried to answer the questions through the lens of the historical research which is based on analytical-descriptive method. The main tool used in this research is taking notes of primary sources. These resources were carefully studied. Content required, in full text, text abstract, and text withdrawal, are taken note of. Notes are divided into general and partial topics to prevent confusion in the content and to allow a reasonable analysis of events.
    Discussion
    Sultan Hussein Mirza, the son of Bahram Mirza, was the only brother of Shah Tahmasb (Bedlisi, 1377: 2/202); (Qazvini: 1367, 17-16). He was appointed by Shah Tahmasb to the Qandehar’s sovereignty (Eskandar Beig, 1350: 1 / 92-93 / 478). Sultan Hussein Mirza had five sons. They were called, in order of birth, Mozaffar Hossein Mirza, Rostam Mirza, Sanjar Mirza, Abu Saeed Mirza and Mohammad Hossein Mirza (136). All his sons resided with him in Qandehar, except Mohammad Hussein Mirza, who stayed in the court. (Hossein Qomi, 1363: 623). The sons of Sultan Hussein Mirza took control of Qandehar after his death (Hossein Astarabadi, 1356: 66). After a while, they had controversy over the Sistan’s area. These disputes resulted in war between them (Shahnavaz Khan, 1888: 298-297 / 3). These wars caused unrest in Qandehar and Sistan districts. The relentless attacks of Uzbeks to Khorasan led to more turmoil in the situation (Hossein Qomi, 1363: 899 - 895). On the other hand, Akbar Shah, who had been always pondering upon  the conquest of Qandehar, by observing the prevailing conditions, began to make promises and delivered gifts to the princes of Safavid (Eskandar Beig, 1350: 1 / 486-448). Finally, Rustam Mirza and Sultan Hussein Mirza took refugee after several letters and treaties to India (Jahangir, 1357: 149-148). They were welcomed by Akbar Shah after entering India (Nezam al-Din Ahmad, n.d: 2/423); (Kenbo, n.d: 1/41). Three of them Mozaffar Hossein Mirza, Abu Saeed Mirza, Sanjar Mireza) died at the very early years of their arrival in India (Eskandar Beig, 1350: 1/299). But Rostam Mirza was able to find a good position during the reign of Akbar Shah in conquering Ahmadinegar and dominated the kingdoms of Dakan (Nahavandi, Bely: 1/932). He was also involved in the upheavals of the late Jahangir’s monarchy. Jahangir trusted him so much that he believed the oath of Rostam Mirza, alleging that Mohtaran Khan Khajesara, Khalil Beig Zolgadr and Qadayi Khan Mirtozk had an affair with Prince Khurram, therefore he killed them all (Khafi Khan Nezam al molki, 1874: 1 / 403-404). Rostam Mirza eventually died after serving fifty years in India, in 1052 AH (Kenbo, n.d: 306.2). According to the report of Shahnavaz Khan, one of the daughters of Rostam Mirza married to Sultan Parviz. (Shahnavaz Khan, 1888: 3 / 349-348). Daroshokoh also married to one of the daughters of Rostam Mirza (Ghane Tatavy, 1957, 312). But the role of the children of Rostam Mirza, during the reign of Jahangir, increased slightly in the developments. The youngest son of Rustam, Murad, with princess Khoram, during the reign of Jahangir, went to Dakhan to help him (Lahuri, 1867: 1-167-165). Murad also played an important role in Princess Khoram’s dominance of Rayanan (Jahangir, 1359: 155 and 170-169). Shahnavnaz Khan, another son Rostam Mirza, participated in defeating the riot of Dakan’s regime. The regime announced a sermon to the Iranian government and declared independence. In 1045 AH, Shah Jahan went to Dakan to prepare a troop to invade the property of Bijapur and he himself moved to Dakan. Shahnavaz Khan played a major role in this war and conquering of various cultures such as Simon and Odyssey (Kenbo, n.d: 123-100, 133-130, 147-146). In the late unrests of Shah Jahan dynasty, Shahnavaz Khan was a supporter of Daroshokoh. He disobedied Orangzib because of defeating the riot of Dakan. Initially, this disobedience led to his arrestment in Buranpur by the command of Orangzib (Mohammad Bakht Orkhan, n.d: 1/17 Shahnavaz Khan, 1888: 3/674). But after the Orangzib’s victory over Daroshokoh, Orangzib forgave Shahnavaz Khan and appointed him to rule Gajarat. (Shahnavaz Khan, 1888: 3/673; Monshi Mohammad Kazem, 1868: 1/210). On the other hand, Orangzib, who was informed of the preparations for the new troops by Daroshokoh, sent a troop to pursue him. Daroshokoh was afraid and escaped to Gajarat from Orangzib’s troops. Shahnavaz Khan, the ruler of Gajarat, joined Daroshokoh (Khafi Khan Nezam al-Molki, 1874: 2 / 63-60). Eventually, in 1069 AH, Orangzib’s troops managed to dominate Shahnavaz Khan’s forces and massacred many of his soldiers. In order to defend his soldiers and take revenge he entered the battle field; an arrow struck him and he was killed. (Shahnavaz Khan, 1888: 3 / 675-674). Hasan Mirza, another son of Rostam, was appointed to rule the Bengal government in 1038 AH. (Lahuri, 1867: 2 / 164-163). He also took part in opposing Jaget Sange’s disobedience, along with his son, Safshekan Khan (247-246). Safshekan Khan, the son of Hassan Mirza, in the late unrests of the Shah Jahan dynasty, unlike Shahnavaz Khan, was an advocate of Orangzib and accompanied him in the war with Daroshokoh. (Manshi Mohammad Kazem, 1868: 1/63 and 69-68). After the victory of Orangzib and movement of Daroshokoh to Lahore, he also pursued  him (Khafi Khan  Nezamal-Molki, 1874: 2 / 61-60). Morad Kam, another son of Rostam, was also a supporter of Orangzib and had control over Jonpour. First, he surrendered to Mohammad Shoja, the brother of Orangzib who had joined Daroshokoh. But eventually, with the resistance of Orangzib army in front of Mohammad Shoja , he joined Orangzib and was highly admired (Khafi khan Nezam al-Molki, 1874: 2 / 58-45). Mokarram Khan eventually died in 1080 AH due to severe fever (Shahnavaz Khan, 1888: 3/586).
    Conclusion
    The sons of Sultan Hussein Mirza took refuge in India because of the internal disputes, the relentless attacks of Uzbeks to Khorasan, the civil unrests in Iran, and Akbar Shah's attempts to dominate Qandehar. None of them except Mozaffar Hossein Mirza thought about returning. Apparently, Mozaffar Hossein Mirza's disobedience and his early death had a negative impact on the position of his children in India. But Rostam Mirza and his children played important roles in the period of Jahangir’s dynasty. They were also important figures in the changes which occurred during Shah Jahan’s kingdom and the subsequent riots of his monarchy. The meticulous examination of the Orangzib's treatment of  Safavid princes is not possible because of the death of several of them in the very early years and the decree of the abolition of historic writing in this period. But in general, most of them, during the reign of the Mongols over India, were trying to maintain their supremacy. They adapted themselves to Indian customs. They made a kinship with them. At key points, they played key roles and used every opportunity to prove themselves. In fact, their immigration to India was the initiator of a new chapter in the relationship between the two dynasties of the Safavids and the Indian Mongols and this issue has not been addressed so far. What is certain is that a better understanding of the relationships between the two dynasties of the Safavids and the Indian Mongols requires further research to reveal the hidden dimensions of the relations of these two dynasties.
    Keywords: Safavid princes, kandahar, Indian Mughals, asylum
  • Aliakbar Nasiri *, Fatemeh Dehani Pages 215-228
    Introduction
    Recourse means the person is closer to God by placing things in God. Many Muslims have defended the permission to appeal to prophets and divine parents both during their lifetime and after their lives and many aspects of resorting to it
    The necessity and purpose of addressing this research is to familiarize oneself with the thoughts of some Dewandiyah scholars on resorting to the fact that they are endowed with a permit of resorting to them. Contrary to general theory, which indicates the lack of permission of the Imams to resort to Tawassul  Of course, some of the scholars of Ahlstān Tavassl may consider some of the affairs, but amongst each group of extremist individuals there is no mention of the many people who have been rude to everyone.
    Now, we have a question about the Deo Bandia scholars, who do the Doomsday scholars think about the prophets, the parents, and the righteous? What is Ashraf Ali Tahaniwi and Khalil Ahmad Saharupouri as two Devoondieh scholars in relation to resort?
    Research methodology
    The method of research is descriptive-analytical and content analysis, which is done with a library tool. The statistical scope of this research includes two of the Deobandiya sciences, namely Khalil Ahmad Saharupouri and Ashraf Ali Tahanvi. Content analysis is a method by which our message is systematically and accurately used to deduce scientific knowledge and allow researchers to achieve the same results from research.   
    Discussion
    The Deobendya is a stream that aims to liberate India from British colonialism and save Muslims and revive Islamic doctrines, representing a kind of verbal and philosophical thinking within the framework of Hanafi jurisprudence and the Word of Matrahdi. The clergymen of Deobendya do not think about resorting to the prophets and the parents, who have accepted some of them, some have been rejected, but some of them have allowed resorting to it. Here, we will comment on the views of two of them: Sheikh Khalil Ahmad Saharupouri and Ashrafi Tahani. These two individuals have accepted the principle of resorting and many of their forms and forms, such as resorting to the Prophet and the righteous, pleading from the person of the Prophet both during and after his life, the pilgrimage of the graves of the prophets and parents, the consecration, intercession and reverence of the graves. Some examples of Shrek in Deobendya include:First: the belief in the present and the observance of the mitt: that is, a person believes that divine parents can be present at any place in the universe, and regard each place and the meaning of the martyr, present, and meaningful meanings; and these two attributes are characteristic traits God is, and attributing them to non-God is Shirk and disbelief. (Heidari Nasab, 79: 1393) Second: Belief in the non-Allah's knowledge of the non-Allah (as) is considered to be polytheistic, because the use of the word of the unseen is considered by God and it is not permissible to use it for non-God. (Same, 84: 1393-85)
    Conclusion
    In the end, we conclude that all the clergymen of Deobendya do not think about the use of prophets, parents, and righteous people, and in this regard they are divided into two categories, the vital one and the first one, and the first category is called "dead and alive", and the second group is called "dead" and Rejecting some of its kind and believing it to be true. One of the examples of Shirk is the following: the believer of the present and the body of the Mith, the belief in the unseen and not the occasional news for non-Allah, the request of a non-Allah who is in the domain of divine power, along with the belief in power Independent for that non-... Most of them have accepted their appeal and various aspects, including Khalil Ahmad Sahar-Panouri and Ashraf Ali Tahani, who believes in resorting to the Prophet and the righteous, pleading from the Prophet's life both during and after his life, the pilgrimage of the graves Prophets and parents, blessings, intercession, reverence for the graves and ...
    Keywords: Recourse, Deobandyah, Khalil Ahmad Saharanpoory, Ashraf Ali Thahanavy
  • Roghayye Hemati *, Abdollah Valipour Pages 305-324
    Introduction
    Studying the historical evolution of "unity of existence" indicates that "we always encounter unity in mysticism" (Kakayi, 2010: 103); secondly, "the unity of existence in Islam was systematically organized by Ibn 'Arabi" (Poornamardian, 1996: 91). However, it has a long history, and has been popular roughly similar in different ethnic groups and religions. In Islam, before Ibn 'Arabi, the "unity of existence" has been referred in the speeches of mystics like Al-Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami, Junayd of Baghdad and etc., it is also stated in the Quran and Nahj al-Balaghah. As far as the Ancient Iran is concerned, the book Sikand-gûmânîk Vigâr, states that:"What exists in the tangible world, its root and origin can be found in the intangible world, too" (Zarrinekub, 2000: 26). In ancient Greece and Rome, "the history of the idea of ​unity of existence can be traced back to the pre-Socratic philosophy, all philosophers before Socrates believed that they could find a pervasive order and unity beneath the plurality of the observable universe" (Kakayi, 2010: 26). However, the oldness of unity of existence in ancient India may be as one of the most pretentious origins of the unity of existence, or even as the main origin of pantheism, which has been reflected in Upanishads (See also: 121-122). Given that the unity of existence belongs to the world beyond the existence world and sometimes the interference of these meanings leads to concurrency of contradictory meanings, hence, linguistic propositions are unable to transmit this mystical experience and mystics prefer to use allegory in their teachings.
    Many similarities can be found among the allegories used to illustrate the issue of "unity of existence" in Bidel Dehlavi’s works and Upanishads. Though Bidel is considered as Ibn Arabi's followers in mysticism, he has referred to Indian mysticism and beliefs in his works. On the hand, the comparative study of different nations’ works leading to the clarification of thought commonalities and exploration of sympathy and mutual understanding among them, justifies the significance of this study.
    Research Methodology
    In this study, which is based on a descriptive and analytical method, an attempt is done to analyze and study the allegories which are presented for the better understanding of the "unity of existence" in Bidel Dehlavi’s works and the holy books of Hindus. To this end, the examples are first extracted from Bidel’s works and Upanishads and then are categorized in seven different groups. Later, the findings are analyzed.
    Discussion
     3.1. Allegory of seed: considering that when a seed becomes a tree, it has several names such as root, trunk, branch, leaf, fruit, etc., but the origin is the same (see also, Ouldagh, 2008: 96). In Upanishads and Bidel's works, it has been pointed out through various allegories that there is only one existence as being real all through the world of being and the created universe with all its diversity is nothing but the manifestation of God.
    3.2. Water: water has always been considered by the mystics for its colorless, immeasurable, softness and flexible features (see also, Kakayi, 2010: 501). The proponents of unity of existence believe that whirlpools, waves, bubbles, streams, springs and drops, and ... with all their diversity, are nothing but the manifestation of the sea; and the created universe with all its diversity is nothing but the plural manifestation of real existence.
    3.3. Mirror and image: mirror is one of the most beautiful and precise allegories of the unity of existence due to features such as the inescapability of the image, lack of image in the absence of a person, the limitation of mirror in presenting the image owner, the difference in the image of the unit object in multiple mirrors and etc.
    3.4. Sun and shadow: according to proponents of unity of existence, the relationship between the universe and God is like the relationship between shadow and shadow owner. The shadow is neither light nor darkness, or it is both light and darkness, both existent and nonexistent. It can be a paradoxical expression of existence and nonexistence. That is, the shadow may be likened to universe, while it is nothing it is existent.
    3.5. Breath, Voice and Speech: The letters and words used by human beings can, in several aspects, be an allegory of different dimensions of the unity of existence. The origin of the words is the meaning that is at the chest of the speaker, and the words we hear are its manifestation. Thus, we can claim that the words, while appearing, remains at the chest of speaker, and this is an allegory of the manifestation of God in the people in their chest in terms of essence (See also Kakayi, 2010: 497). Or a single breath that goes out of the speaker's chest, creates different letters in dealing with various outlets and parts of letters that are diverse. The proponents of unity of existence believe that creatures are the words of God, which from the highest to the lowest rank are manifested from the graceful soul.
    3-6. Sleep and awakening: The proponents of unity of existence consider the world as dream, that is, when one is sleeping, his dream is not true, this world is also a dream, and it is not true (See also, Ibn Arabi, 2010: 589). In this way, followers of the unity of existence, using the allegory of sleep and awakening, describe the paradox of unity of being with a particular beauty.
    7. Color and colorlessness: The allegory related to the color of water, glass and sun, is another allegory of the existence of plurality in unity for the proponents of this theory. With this explanation that if the colorless light shines to colored glasses, it will appear in plurals with numerous colors.  Similarly, water takes different colors in different situations. For example, when it flows in a red rose, it turns red and when it penetrates into a green leaf, it turns green. While, when it sits on the mirror, it rusts. According to the proponents of unity of existence, this allegory indicates the paradox of unity, plurality, appearance and reality as well.
    Conclusion
    1- The idea of ​​the unity of existence is one of the common issues in the Upanishads and the works of Bidel Dehlavi. Hence, the fundamental thought in these works is that the true existence in terms of essence and prediction is unit, while it is plural in terms of names and traits and the universe of creation and creatures is nothing but imagination and manifestation of the unique essence.
    2. Although it is undeniable that Bidel is impressed by Ibn Arabi’s idea of ​​the unity of existence, given that he lived in India and constantly communicated with Hindu tribes, it seems that he has been impressed by the ontological notions of Hindus and reflected some of these Hindu and Brahmaic ideas in his works while expressing the teachings of Islamic mysticism.
    3- Although the allegories of the unity of existence are abundant in the works of Bidel Dehlavi, there are some allegories that are similar to the allegories in the Upanishads, including the allegory of water and various manifestations, mirror and image, shadow and sun, seed and tree, sleep and awakening, color and colorlessness, breath and voice and speech.
    Keywords: Unity of existence, Islamic mysticism, Hindu mysticism, Bidel Dehlavi, Upanishads