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سال سیزدهم شماره 38 (فروردین و اردیبهشت 1395)

The purpose of this study is to explore the dimensions and attributes of productive and agricultural landscape in the Persian gardens. The methodology of conducting this study is descriptive-analytical. The data is gathered through library research and interviews, as well as field studies in the six Persian Gardens (Akbariyeh, Rahim Abad, Amir Abad, Bahlgerd, Pahlavanpur, and Shahzadeh). The results, which show the need to provide recreational services for owners, guests and in some cases people, has led to the significant presence of fruitful greenery, even in the governmental gardens. There are various fruit trees in the gardens of Shahzadeh, Amirabad and Pahlavanpur which demonstrate the importance of targeted food products for human consumption as well as animals in the system of designing the traditional green spaces. Promotion the quality of the beauty of inner green scenery of the gardens is other characteristics of agricultural landscape, specifically in Birjand’s gardens which the visual landscape system has been created by composition of fruitful and ornamental species. Additionally, attitudes into increasing the efficiency, profitability and self-sufficiency of landscape have been ordered the planting of multipurpose plant species in the Iranian garden design. There are varieties of vegetables and herbs in the garden of Shahzadeh, and fragrant flowers, saffron, plum, pomegranate and fig trees representing in Birjand’s garden proving the medicinal properties of productive scenery in addition to their appropriateness to the climate and scarce resources. Throughout history the structural importance of the edible landscape in Persian garden is due to the knowledgeable use of green spaces and landscaping. The combination of ornamental horticulture and fruit farming results in a multi-functional garden. Therefore, the agricultural landscape can be introduced as an indicator to assess the quality of garden management, an efficient tool for assessing the status of agricultural knowledge, gardens health assessment, as well as evaluating the lifestyle and the natural- cultural continuity of a garden to its context which should be considered more by the researchers.

Geometrical and mathematical proportions play a fundamental role in art and architecture. Persian architecture has been always closely related to geometry. This is easily visible in decorations and patterns of surfaces. Persian architects made utmost effort to apply construction materials as economically as possible. Studying the tile works in terms of form and geometrical characteristics reveals how tiles have been applied in mosques. In this respect, Esfahan is one of the cities of Iran with an amazing variety in terms of tile works used in its mosques. The spiritual beauty and geometrically skilful representations reach its zenith in Esfahan’s mosques especially at the time it was the capital of an Empire- Safavid era. Applying tiles and materials economically has had a direct relationship with geometric mastery. Most studies in this connection have dealt with symbolic representations and drawing techniques of Persian tile works. This study, however, aimed to examine geometric characteristics of tiles, the quantity of them and the number of workforce needed to apply tiles on the wall surfaces of Isfahan mosques of Safavid era. Through doing library research and geometric analyses, the number of workforce and tiles used was estimated. Then, several tile fretworks were dismantled into its constituents. The area, perimeter and occurrence frequency of each form were examined through applying special soft wares. In addition, the work force needed to make each form was estimated and compared among the different fretworks. The number of tiles applied in terms of their color was determined in each tile inscription. In order to draw the patterns, the techniques used by the distinguished experts (Lorzade, Maher-o-Naghs and Shaarbaf) were followed. In fact, the present study tried to reveal Persian architects’ mastery over geometry. Since the majority of similar studies have been done on famous mosques, it was decided that less famous mosques be examined to, at the same time, make other researchers encourage study less historically distinguished buildings as well. In this connection, two mosques- Khayyatha Mosque and Zolfaghar-e-Neemavard Mosque, both built in Safavid era were studies. The two mosques have various brick and tile patterns. Tile fretworks, composed of formal elements, have their own geometrical characteristics. By studying the constituents of the fretworks, the geometrical and mathematical proportions were obtained. The effect of size and form of tile work on workforce and used materials was recognized. In addition, the most commonly used tile work patterns in Khayyatha mosque and Zolfaghar-e-Neemavard mosque was found. This study may help Persian traditional tile fretworks and tile decorations perpetuate.

During different human periods, many factors have influenced the formation of cities. Sometimes one or more factors constitute city including mountains, rivers, building, roads, religion, and customs. Religion as a cultural element is the source of change and difference in various countries. The orders of Islam religion is such that they can be achieved easily in urban environment. Then Islamic governments were established, and city development was their goal to show their strength and achieve idealistic, social and political purposes. Ideals and duties of Islamic government embody in the city. In Islamic period, the first example of impact of on building as a religious factors in city development can be identified as prophet’s mosque in Madineh city. Religious buildings have a great influence in formation and development of many cities in Iran and in Islamic realm. Considering their abundant historic, artistic, religious and social impacts on architecture, focusing on these buildings can lead to creation or development of cities in this territory to be introduced as a tourist destination and exhibit the architecture of Islamic city.
Ilam province, located on common borders of Iran and Iraq on the direction of migration and exile of Alevis, is home to many Imamzadeh and their companions Shrines in its cities and villages due to the impassable mountainous. This study aims to investigate the effect of Ali-alsaleh Shrine (pbuh) as a cultural and religious element in the formation of Saleh Abad city located in Ilam province.
According to library and field studies and based on history of the shrine existence in Hegdandasht region and the prepared development map of city, it can be conclude that this shrine as a religious tomb building in Islamic period is the only factor of city formation and growth in a hot and arid climate. Noted city has taken its name from this shrine, and has been known as Saleh Abad.

This paper aims to identify the influence of cross-cultural communications on the formation and development of the miniature of School of Isfahan. The main findings of this paper explain and describe the method of foreignization and the influence of cultural changes on the emergence of this method. In other words, in the process of developing foreign relations during the reign of the Safavids, and by the entrance of European artists to Iran and the familiarity of Iranian artists with Western painting styles, a new course of events happens in the Persian miniature as foreignization affected by the aesthetic methods and techniques of non-Iranian painting. The results of this study have shown that cross-cultural communication has deeply influenced the emergence of new artistic and non-Iranian practices in different ways including economic, political and cultural relations. And therefore foreignization for us is a dynamic aesthetic system. That’s why we have explained and illustrated the course of events related to the foreignization of artworks analysis of this period with descriptions and analysis by using applied research methods.

Until the mid Tahmasb era 1555, Tabriz was the capital of the empire, and until the termination of the Safavid era in 1779 it was considered as the second most important city of the Iran from religious, political and economic standpoint and following the same importance, architecture was of great importance in the country. During the Qajar era, the same fame and importance continued and Tabriz was the city of prince and government house and the second city of Iran. Unfortunately, natural disasters such as earthquake of 1779 and other problems such as continuous wars with Ottoman Empire caused the changes of infrastructures of spaces and nowadays after three centuries, the researcher faces many questions about the spatial structure of Tabriz in Safavid era. Since the remaining documents from the era include the building along with itineraries and some drawings by some tourists, therefore, the present paper claims that many important structural changes has happened in spatial structure of Tabriz. Hence, the aim of the present paper is to study and analyze the spatial structure of Tabriz during Safavid era through comparison of itineraries and pictorial documents in order to represent an exact image of spatial structure of the city during Safavid era. In order to achieve the goal, the data are collected using historical-documentary method, texts, sources, and analysis of the data using analytic-comparative methods. Among the results of the research the replacement of governmental part from Northern part of the river to the Southern part, its neighborhood with Eastern wing of the Bazaar, and Sahib Abad Square losing its boom at late Safavid era, the importance of other squares such as Atik square and the changes in physical dimension of the city all could be referred.

Traditionalism as a new brand thought having claimed thousands years thought base even in human history, try to analyze and study all civilization’s appearance. This analyze is so wild that there are no appearances of human life out of it. One of these appearances that Traditionalists have emphasized is art. Art as one of basic appearances of and society’s sense, culture and civilization was been attended by them. Among all of various kinds of Islamic Art, Islamic Calligraphy has a special place. It has had a deep linkage with other kind of Islamic Art such as Holy Quran Writing and other related arts, architecture and building decoration and in current time it has a strong connection with visual arts. So it is one of alive art in this kind of world art. Islamic Calligraphy could adjust itself with geographic and environmental conditions so well and developed as a main art in Islamic and even non Islamic countries. Traditionalists who studied Islamic Arts, have perused Islamic Calligraphy and among them Seyyed Hosein Nasr, Martin Lings and Titus Burckhardt have most portion about theorizing in Islamic Calligraphy. Among their theories and point of views about Islamic Calligraphy, their attitude about the beginning of it has been investigated in this article and tried to meanwhile our precise investigation, measure them with critical look to find out if we can embed traditional point of view about the beginning of Islamic Calligraphy in top rate of theories or not. Traditionalists generally have five theories about the beginning of Islamic Calligraphy. First source is "First Word". Ambiguity in explanation of this phrase is our first serious critique to this theory. In addition, this theory’s contrast with rationality and even with their metaphysical bases must add to other critiques. Second source that Traditionalists try to theorize is Holy Quran. Even if this theory is correct and coincident with historical facts but it is just one of various causes that create Islamic Calligraphy. Arabs verbal tradition and lack of calligraphy’s past among them as well as occurrence some non-sacred happening that they motivate Muslims to write Holy Quran and necessity of governmental and literary writings propel Muslims to create Islamic Calligraphy. So just by revelation of Holy Quran did not create an art such Islamic Calligraphy. Furthermore we must say that Traditionalists have confused between writing of Holy Quran and Holy Quran Calligraphy. Third source is Islam itself or in Traditionalists’ interpretation totality of Islamic culture and civilization. Ambiguity in explanation of terms in their words just make their theory complex and possible interpretation. In addition if they try to offer it as Muslims’ reaction to Holy Quran, we explain our critiques in second source. Forth source is Loh-e Mahfuz. Ambiguity in their word and terms is saw in this theory too. Furthermore we analyzed it rationally and found out that this theory about the beginning of Islamic Calligraphy is in serious and obvious contrast with Traditionalists’ other theories in metaphysics and basic thoughts. Meanwhile they did not attend to peripheral, historical and geographical facts that they have important and deep influence on everything especially on art. Fifth source is Imam Ali (a.s.). This theory is one of few theories that there is disagreement among traditionalists. Seyyed Hosein Nasr believed that Imam Ali (a.s.) had made Islamic Calligraphy but Martin Lings thought that it is not possible because the Holy Qurans that they referred to Imam Ali (a.s.) never can write by him since their script refer to beginning or middle of Hijri third century. While Imam Ali (a.s.) had lived in first century and passed away in 40 of Hijri. In the end we concluded that among five sources that Traditionalists have theorized for the beginning of Islamic Calligraphy, four of them which include Allah or First Word, Islam, Loh-e Mahfuz and Imam Ali (a.s.) are in contrast with historical facts, rationality and logically necessities and even traditionalists’ metaphysical basis. So we must reject them. Only Holy Quran as one of the five sources that they mentioned is acceptable. But it is necessary that we pay attention that Traditionalists have not perused all futures of this source and they ignore important and great part of historical facts. As a result we must say that Traditionalists’ point of view about the beginning of Islamic Calligraphy is not reasonable and scientific.