نشریه نقد زبان و ادبیات خارجی
سال پنجم شماره 9 (پاییز و زمستان 1391)

This article is intended to present Edward Bond''s Rational Theatre and the technique of «agro-effect» as a response to the theatrical revolutions of his age and movements of 1960s Europe. However، as he belongs to the same Brechtian revolutionary tradition in Germany and is considered as one of the followers of Marxist theatre، it is better to examine Bond''s drama in the light of Brechtian practice. Bond، like Brecht، squashes the basic principles of Aristotelian dramatic form and stands against the naturalistic style of Stanislavski''s theatre، tries to serve Brecht''s dialecticism with his conscious romanticism so as to give a more critical view to his dramatic form. Part one of this article deals with the nature of education process-one of the components of epic theatre- and all the effective teqniques in the theatre of these two playwrights. Part Two examines the interrelation between history and literature from the point of view of these two playwrights. Part Three or Bond''s theatrical dialogue with Shakespeare endorses the relationship between literature and history، and the dialogue between the cultural icons of the past with those of the contemporary through emphasizing Bingo، one of Bond''s most significant plays in which the life of Shakespeare، as a canonical figure in the Renaissance period، is portrayed. Part Four introduces Bond''s Rational Theatre and the technique of «agro-effect» through examining some of the features of Brecht''s epic theatre in Bond''s plays. It also tries to show how the introduction of the Rational Theatre leads to a sort of debate which contradicts Brecht''s dramatic presuppositions such as alienation effect (distance) and emotional involvement of the audience. The final section offers a conclusion that Rational Theatre is a committed means to change society.

This article studies the role of L1 by L2-learning. The use of L1 is related to the history of L2-learning. This role was neglected for long time because of reactions to grammar-translation method and almost all critics supported only L2 for learning. But nowadays we witness positive change of attitudes concerning the use of L1 in the classroom. Because the mother tongue is the only language، that human learns independent from any other language. Mother tongue determines the feelings and thoughts of learners and so it is not to switch off from foreign language teaching. Besides it can be، especially in the first stages of learning، very useful. In the long run، it makes the foreign language information understandable for learners. One can see this influence mostly in the process of learning meaning and grammar.

The postmodern philosophy offers a new outlook at defining history as a discipline in the humanities while focusing on its ontology through challenging the fundamental presuppositions of the Enlightenment and modernist approaches to history. An illuminating example of this approach is observed in the work of the American philosopher of history، Hayden White. By proposing the historical sublime، White challenged the rudimentary assumptions of the Enlightenment/modernist philosophies of history to render them ineffectual and insufficient. In parallel with the development of the poststructuralist philosophy of history، historiographic meta-fiction burgeoned to criticize the traditional approaches to history by intermingling the historical and the fictional، and through the deployment of narratological techniques of its own. In the preset article، attempt is made to closely read Ishmael Reed’s 1972 novel Mumbo Jumbo in order to investigate the strategies and novelistic techniques by the help of which he embraced such postmodernist tenets. The present study further provides a comparative study of the major approaches to history، namely، the Enlightenment/modernist on the one hand and the postmodernist on the other. It is thus intended to read the novel in terms of White’s key critical terms on history to explore Reed’s objectives in deconstructing the fundamental conventions of historiography and the classical historical novel.

The notion of time has changed to one of the most controversial subjects of the contemporary debates، after Einstein’s’ revolutionary ideas on relativity of time; it challenged the linear، conventional thinking about the nature of time. The shift of time toward a more relative time zone that deconstructed the established historical time is traced as an urge to rethink the existence of linear absolute time; thus، it leads to introducing various possible، parallel time zones، including internal and social times، which are in contradiction with the known and conventional time systems. However، as time is a transient entity، it is only accessible to the human mind through memories of particular moments. It means that to gain a true perception of the notion of time، its inevitable interaction with the discourse of memory must be considered. Experiencing the diverse internal time in opposition with the monotonous objective time system is the subject of many contemporary novels. The linear Newtonian time in novels is challenged by a more flexible Einstein’s Relativity theory that gives more space for experiencing diverse temporal zones. Not to forget that like many discursive discourses، the disciplines of time and memory are determined by socio- cultural paradigms of a society. In analyzing the interaction of time and memory، one must consider the impact of cultural conventions of society in representations of past images. This essay intends to study the contingent interaction of time and memory in The Hundred Secret Senses by Amy Tan and The Child in Time by Ian McEwan to suggest that like every other discourse، these disciplines are influenced by the socio-cultural paradigms of society. Although، both of these writers employ deconstruction of time for a representation of the past، in their texts، the outcomes and patterns of such attempt is diversely depicted.

The themes of exile and new horizons intersect closely at Le Clézio. Parallel to the reconciliation of the “exile” and “horizon” motifs in Michel Collot. The notion of crossing horizontal border separating spaces، time and outside-inside and its effects (displacement، migration، exile and nomadism) appear in the world of Clézien. Hence، the desire to migrate in space and time، or indeed exceed all separations and differences leading to the removal of borders، hoping to explore a better world، in other countries، encouraging man to overcome geographical backgrounds، borders، spatial، temporal، external-internal. In fact، crossing threshold of happiness and progress.

“Free indirect discourse” (FID) has been one of the most common and، at the same time، most controversial modes of representing characters’ speech and thought in narrative fiction. Its usage dates back to hundreds of years، but it attained perfection in the early twentieth century، usually referred to as the high Modernist period. This essay introduces this narrative-stylistic technique and studies its practice in Modernist and pre-Modernist fiction. First، the different modes of representing characters’ discourses and، in particular، FID are explained. Then، six extracts from Modernist and pre-Modernist fictional works are analyzed with regard to the textual markers and effects of FID. It is discussed that the two primary functions of FID are producing a sort of empathy in the reader with the character-focalizer at issue and creating a state of vocal ambiguity or “polyvocality” in the text. Finally، the differences between the Modernist and pre-Modernist uses of FID are elaborated on، and we conclude that، despite the differences، in both styles of writing، FID is a useful device for representing the inner worlds of fictional characters; and readers of such texts should be aware of the functions of FID in the reading process. Thus، this narrative-stylistic device and similar techniques must be taken into consideration in teaching narrative fiction or the criticism of it.

This article seeks to study the significance of the body and bodily experiences and their relationship to the black individual and collective identity in Toni Morrison’s Beloved. In this novel – which focuses on the destructive effects of slavery and the black people’s strategies for countering those effects – Morrison has described the efforts of the slave-owners to undermine the slaves’ sense of freewill and to imbue them with a false identity. Besides coercion، the slave-owners resort to pseudo-science and documentary knowledge in order to define the black people not as human beings who deserve freedom but as half humans. Therefore، they justify their exploitation of the black people. The blacks، on the other hand، try to stay away from the realm of language، learning and culture as a colonized realm and، instead، resort to nature، the body، and bodily experiences as the unconquered realm and as the starting point from which they might regain their true human identity. Through some resistant strategies، all related to the body، such as certain naming rituals related to bodily experiences، emphasis on maternal bond، and consecration of members of the body، the black characters try to form an immediate relationship with the being and their own nature and to deconstruct the cultural formations of the slave-owners. By analyzing each of these strategies and finding their embodiments in the novel، this article will discuss the significance of the body and bodily experiences for the black characters’ resistant processes of identity formation.

Jacques Lacan argues that human psyche is formed of three orders (the Imaginary، the Symbolic and the Real) which mold the unconscious mind، and thus by analyzing them the motivations of human actions and reactions could be comprehended. He also holds that the O (other) has an immense impact on the formation of those orders in our unconsciousness and hence on our identity. The role of the Other in the formation of the psychic orders of the characters of Eugene O’Neill’s Long Day’s Journey into Night and their reactions to the outside world، as the outer presentation of their troubled mind، is investigated in the present article. It is discussed here that the mental and physical problems and disorders of the characters of the play، such as their addiction to alcohol and drugs، are the outcome of their repressed desires which have remained unfulfilled because of the rules defined by the Other – hence the frustrating sense of lack observed in all four characters.

In signs of a sentence for grammatical analysis of a text which made from sentences، the grammatical structure and its appearance is important. Some of the apparent signs of sentences have special grammatical features with special meaning; these apparent signs help the Russian-speaking people who learn through grammar to realize the intended meaning of the sentence. These signs are making structures which are used to express various events and are different. Based on these structural patterns numerous various statements could be made all of which can have a similar appearance. In order to express the components which build the structural scheme of the sentence، abbreviation and Latin alphabet are used for naming different parts of speech and the titles of some types of words. For example: Vf shows morphologic verb (from the Latin verb verbum finitum); Vf3s third person singular verb (from the Latin verb singularis)، etc. It is also necessary to look at linguistic concepts which are joined like sequences of series and not only discussed by syntactic pattern but also through the mutual relation syntactic pattern and lexical meaning of words and upon constitution of a sentence each will occupy a certain syntactic place in that sentence. Mode of expression is one of these concepts which has a wide reflection in single component syntactic structures of Russian sentences. This article examines (studies) those single component structural schemas that their syntactic predicate reflect the state of the logical subject or sometimes omitted.

We know the inarticulate language We read the signs without reference mark. The evolution of the novelists of this country would result in the displacement of their interest، of the bottom to the form، without any doubt in connection with the design positivist of the end of the XIX century، as for the abandonment of the style balzacian in favor of new romantic forms. From the principle of the Art for art’s sake formulated by Theophiles Gauthier، the writers and the Parnassian poets identified the transcendence of the art by the negation of its definite barriers. Such a design requires the exclusion of the personal identity of the artist; identity influenced in any case by its social environment and its historical period. They are successively surrealism and the existentialism which teach him how to flee demanding realities and to break the last ramparts of ego interior. The free man and released of any engagement test، however، even of nature existentialist. The death of God in Occident involves this time that of the Man so that the art can appear as Untied Beauty of any external interpretation and description. As the history of such an experiment، how does the New Novel let appear essential prestige of the Art in abstracting it and by stripping it? Where reside the common and divergent aspects of the style of the new novelists in order to reveal the Hidden Beautiful?

There are different relations between mozaf and mozafon elayh، including possession، similarity، type and make-up. In these senses، Persian ezafi structures have different equivalents in the Russian language، and the most important and common equivalents are consistent and inconsistent nominal complements (согласованное и несогласованное определение). The present study investigates the nature and variety of Persian ezafi structures including possession، similarity، type and make-up and the ways of expressing them compared with their expressive processes in the Russian language. The purpose is to compare the ways these structures express meaning in the two languages by using examples.