نشریه تاریخ و فرهنگ
سال چهل و هفتم شماره 2 (پیاپی 95، پاییز و زمستان 1394)

American missions began widespread activities throughout Iran since Qajar periods and were mainly engaged in propagation in the form of establishing schools and medical institutes. For this purpose, they had constructed schools and hospitals in Urmia, Hamadan, and Tehran. Mashhad was also among the cities that received more attention by missions. After establishing its position in Mashhad, the American Presbyterian mission sought to execute its projects and began to construct such infrastructures as schools, hospitals, and churches. Scholars of Mashhad reacted seriously to this and tried to prevent their activities. This mission undertook propagational activities in Sabzevar too, which was opposed by people and the scholars. In Mashhad, too, Ayatollah Nawqānī chose to debate and write rebuttal to confront with American priests.
The present article, while examining the reactions of Shī‘a scholars during 1301 to 1309 sh. in Mashhad and Sabzevar against the Presbyterian mission, analyzes the actions taken by them and the methods of reactions according to the Khurasan press and the extant documents.

One of the most important discourses in the Apostle of Allah’s (S.A.W.) life history (sīra) is the way the Prophet (S.A.W.) interacted with the non-Muslims. Deliberation on and exploration into the life of the Prophet (S.A.W.) indicates that while approving the non-Muslims’ rights, especially that of the People of the Scripture, he never failed to express affection and do justice to them. He based the principle in this respect on logic and dialogue, informing and spreading culture, and joint cooperation. While tolerating the unbelievers and supporting the religious centers of People of the Scripture, he did not force anyone change their religion and convert to Islam, although he did his best in intelligently introducing Islam and attracting people to it, using all emotional and rational means. Besides, in such fields as signing of treaties, employing the elite and experts, transaction with the unbelievers, accepting helps from non-Muslims, respecting the ambassadors and envoys, and other related fields, his holiness delineated their rules and left behind lasting principles and regulations, while accepting and emphasizing the basis of these instances.

During second to seventh century, Iran passed through one of its most prosperous historical period. This prosperity was achieved in different dimensions. One of these areas was that of people’s economy and financial life. It was because of the relative improvement in different strata’s income level as well as their experiencing a certain level of monetary economy that markets in Iran encountered some developments and new occupations were added to it, including shops in which foodstuff and foods were sold. There appeared stores that for economic justifications, sometimes one group of foodstuff such as dairy products, were exclusively sold in several stores. Besides selling raw material, another feature of this development was the existence of stores that were involved in procurement and sale of prepared foods and providing places for serving them. This article tries to examine the reasons for the appearance of these stores based on texts from the second and seventh century AH and explain the features and types of their products.

One of the most important developments that brought about other developments in recent centuries in Oman is the transformation of Imamate into monarchy and hereditary rule. The history of Oman after Islam is to be interpreted and analyzed only by the rulership of the doctrine of Abaḍiyya, which is based on the sovereignty of an Imam who is to be elected by the society (ahl-i ḥall wa aqd = representatives of theÇ Muslim community who act on itsÇ behalf in appointing and deposing aÇ caliph or another ruler). Despite various strengths and weaknesses and ups and downs, the rulership of Abāḍiyya has insisted on and abided by this tradition; and Imamate as being hereditary had not been common among the Abāḍiyya before the Imamate of Ya‘rabīs. The decisive formality of hereditary Imamate in Āl-i Būsa‘īd period prompted some to know the transformation of the Imamate institution to monarchy or hereditary rule to be since the time of Āl-i Būsa‘īd; whereas, it seems that the domestic and foreign backgrounds of this development had been gradually formed very long time before that in Oman community and achieved accomplishment in Āl-i Būsa‘īd period. Using the descriptive-analytical method and through library study, this research is intended to study and analyze the course of development and transformation of the Imamate institution to monarchy in Oman’s Abāḍiyya history.

In the study of the failure to expand and establish the Ismā‘īlī school in Maghreb, the impact and role of geographical factors, despite their importance, do not receive much attention. Given the firm relation between the historical phenomena and events with geographical factors (including the natural, humane, religious and political), the present research tries to explain the role and impact of these groups of factors in the failure of the Ismā‘īlī school to prevail in Maghreb during Fatimid period. The findings by this research show that the territorial extent and the environmental and geographical obstacles of Maghreb, made the domination of the Fatimid over its various aspects for laying the ground for establishing the Ismā‘īlī school impossible, just as for a long time it prevented the Muslims dominance in the conquests periods. At the same time, the human, religious, and political geography of Maghreb in pre-Fatimid period had been established in such a way that any of the religious Sunnī (Mālikī and Ḥanafī) groups, Kharigites (Ṣafarī and Abāḍī), and some pseudo-Islamic groups like Barqawāṭa, had their own territorial domains. In addition to this, the Fatimids, with their inability in establishing their desirable administrative-geographical divisions, failed to take under their control the administration of various regions of Maghreb. Thus, the geographical factors can also be taken into account as among the obstacles to the promulgation of the Ismā‘īlī school in the Maghreb during Fatimid period.

After the Mongol invasion of Iran, occult sciences prevailed considerably in Iran. Repeated defeats by foreign clans played a major role in this public pursuit. This caused certain beliefs being promoted among people, some of which can be considered as means for intellectual decline of Iranians and as one of the obstacles to growth and development of natural (experimental) sciences. Mullā Ḥusayn Wā’iẓ Kāshifī, who was one of the well-known preachers and scholars and a profuse writer of this period, played a major role in promotion of this science. In his works, he tried to make his works available to the public. The content of his works show that such beliefs as inevitability of fate, exorcising jinn and other unseen forces for fulfilling material needs, resorting to the stars to become informed of one’s destiny, and appealing to incantations and talismans and fabricated supplications to fend off ominous events were quite normal and accepted in those days.