فصلنامه مطالعات زبان و ترجمه
سال چهل و هشتم شماره 2 (تابستان 1394)

Given the essential role of research in our country and considering the Perspective Document of 1404 and its increasing emphasis on science-based knowledge production, it seems crucial to address the issue of research and the probable problems and obstacles in the way of valuable and high quality studies. One way to assess the state of research in a country and find and address the intervening obstacles and problems is investigating its cultural context. In reality, different cultures exist in one country. One type of culture is that of trust and distrust. Trust can be considered as an individual perception and at the group level, as a culture. It has been introduced as a dimension of social capital and a preservative agent among the values that should be created, enhanced and published in every social groups of the society. However, numerous studies have shown that social trust is not of a desirable condition in many societies, including Iran. The question here is how the cultural context of a society affects its research procedures; a momentous subject which has taken notice of fewer researchers in the field of research in Iran. Thus, in this study, we intend to investigate trust, as a cultural element, and its probable impact on citation in the field of foreign languages.
Theoretical Framework: Trust is a psychological state, shown in response to other's behavior, on the basis of expectations that are created based on the behavior of others. As Fukuyama (1995) believes, in order to progress and develop, we need to raise the awareness of the existence of trust (or distrust). According to Origgi (2004),trust in the integrity of the speaker is an important component of the process of mutual understanding. In fact, in recent years, the acknowledgment of "trust" as reflecting sundry roles, functions, and levels of analysis is considered as a turning point for theory and research on this issue.
In this study, a group of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad professors (4 females and 6 males) ranging from 30 to 65 years of age, majoring in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL), English Language and Literature, English Translation, and French Language and Literature, along with a group of PhD students in TEFL (8 females and 3 males) in the age range of 28 to 38 were recruited based on purposive sampling. With 21 participants, the data reached saturation and no new results were extracted. Subsequently, semi-structured interviews were utilized for data collection.
Content analysis of the interviews indicated the influential role of trust in selecting and citing articles. Our sample professors emphasized that they cite articles on the basis of trusting their authors. A number of professors believed that if the articles have the necessary quality, they will place their trust in their authors and cite them. Additionally, a number of students said that they put their trust in the authors who specifically carry out research in a particular field of study. Moreover, the participants often preferred to take advantage of articles by foreign authors.Theirreasons were: Iranian author's disrespecting the principles of writing, their lack of authority, plagiarism, inaccuracy of data collection, and the low scientific level of the articles. Most of the professors stated the reasons of their distrust in nationalarticles as lack of supervision over the procedure of article writing, the quantitativeview of our educational system, and the lack of dialogue between colleagues. Consequently, most of the professors would not trust their student's research projects, if they didnt know them well. Fifty percent of the professors trusted their own works and cited them. However, the other 50 percent, in spite of trusting their own works, didnt use self-citation in order to observe the research ethics. Furthermore, a consensus of opinion was reached by both groups in that there have been few citations to the Iranian articles by foreign researchers. Finally, the participants attributed the low trust in national scientific-research productions to the wrong policy of our educational system and as a result, the Iranian's attention to the quantity rather than the quality of the articles.
According to the results of this study, it is concluded that the root of distrust in the studies conducted by the Iranians in Iran, especially in the field of foreign languages, can be sought in two basic issues:1- The country's educational system
2- The macro policy and the article-oriented educational and research system of the country in recent years.
With regards to the first issue, most of the participants in this study contended that there is not sufficient and specialized training to educate capable researchers in national as well as international arenas. The necessity of enhancing skills such as critical thinking, initiation, and creativity is clearly felt, not only in the graduate levels but also in elementary and secondary levels. Furthermore, with regards to the second issue and according to the participants of the present study, the macro policy and the article-oriented educational and research system of the country in recent years is considered as a big blow for research and scientific productions in our country, deserving of a fundamental note and a revision of the existing laws and policies in this regard.

Translation is an active process in which a meaning is transferred from a source to a target language. During this process, meaning can be modified by variations in ontology, understandings, and beliefs of those who belong to the target civilization. Sometimes these variations can turn the meaning-making process into a controversial challenge for both translators and critics. Therefore, reflections on the impact of the meaning-making process and its influential differences in the receiving civilization hold absolutely a crucial position in translation studies. These differences, which are all classified under a main category called interculturality, represent a mass of studies accomplished in the field of trans latology. Such studies adopt mainly a semantic point of view and work mostly on meaning analysis and its perception in the target language. In this regard, researchers have recently renovated the field and introduced two main semantic sub-systems for multidimensional concept of meaning-making: signification and evaluation. Signification is related to a signified unit of a linguistic sign and its encompassing properties known as seme. However, evaluation includes a range of different actualizations from more tangible referential properties to the most abstract ones.
Theoretical Framework: During the process of translation, it is essential to consider the importance of both semantic features (signification) sand the inferential values (evaluation) of the translated text. If the interculturality is based on variations in signification, signifying units may exchange (such as in Christmas and Norouz), however variations in values may provoke antipathy, position takings, or even enmity of the readers toward the translated text (as in Jerusalem/Ghods/ Or shalim or Palestine/Israel, etc.).
In this study, which is concentrated on semantic features and their relationship with evaluation attributes (or values), we will have a look at afferent and inherent semantic features which were first introduced by Rastier in the field of semantics. After establishing a meticulous study on these features, which is specially labeled for its classification of afferent/inherent semes and the idea it provides about the functionality of figures of speech, we will propose an explanation, within a semantic framework, about meaning-making process and variations of interculturality in practice. In the end, a connection will be established between semantic properties and evaluation systems found in the field of translation.
To do so, we utilize articles, journals, and books as our research materials and adopt a descriptive point of view to study the phenomenon of interculturality. In this regard, we assume that inherent features satisfy initial needs of translation while afferent properties are for answering its essential needs. As a result, meaning transference, in case of afferent figures, will provoke much bigger concerns for translators as they need the presence of some kind of encyclopedic knowledge beyond the ordinary language competency they have stored in their mind. Thisencyclopedic knowledge is not only essential for translators but also must be present or at least accessible for the target language readers. Other factors that can modify meaning reception during the process of translation are context of speech, figures, personality, and inferential capacities of the readers. Yet, evaluation systems and semantic values can always interfere with the discourse meaning-making process and break the boundaries of semantics. This is particularly the case of litotes (understatement of values) and euphemism (promotion of values).
The purpose of the present study will be then an analysis of the semantic features and their status in translation studies based on textual values and evaluation systems of the target language and its culture. The reason for such a study is to improve the awareness in students of translation disciplines who will sooner or later confront interculturality and its problems. In like manner, the present study will be helpful for decision-making and justifying unusual behaviors of translators in case of intercultural difficulties. It also opens a horizon for future students and researchers about ideology, values exchange, and particularly the case of censorship in political translations.

Nowadays, teachers` stress has become a global concern as one of their commonproblems and about as many as a third of the teachers, investigated through different studies around the world, reported that they consider teaching as a stressful job (Borg, 1990). A great deal of chronic stress might lead to burnout. Although reasons of stress are different among teachers, some of teachers are less prone to burnout. Therefore, there is an important question that why some teachers are more successful in dealing with occupational stress (Vaezi & Fallah, 2011). It seems that one of the factors which help teachers to deal with occupational stress is emotional intelligence (Vaezi & Fallah, 2011). Another important factor, which may contribute to teacher's burnout, can be teachers’ reflectivity which is “the active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it” (Dewey, 1933, p. 9). Inan educational system, teachers` burnout can waste occupational investments and decrease teachers` efficiency. Therefore, recognizing teachers who are susceptible to burnout and finding solutions in order to prevent burnout is necessary. To this end, this study was conducted to bridge this gap in the Iranian EFL context and to examine the relationships among teachers’ emotional intelligence, reflectivity, and burnout and their components on the one hand, and to investigate probable differences among their level of burnout, emotional intelligence, and reflectivity and the components of these variables with respect to their educational degree on the other hand.
The participants of this study were 125 EFL teachers within the age range of 20-47. Teachers` educational degree swere B.A. and M.A. in TEFL and English Translation. The participants were selected randomly from 7 private language institutes in Kurdistan and Hamedan, Iran. To answer the research questions, the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996), Teacher reflectivity (Akbari, Behzadpour ,& Dadvand, 2010) and Bar-On EQ-I (1997) were used and Pearson Product-Moment Correlation and MANOVA analyses were utilized to test the hypotheses.
The results of the current study revealed that there were negative correlations between EFL teachers’ emotional intelligence and reflectivity on the one hand, andtheir burnout, on the other. Jude and Grace (2011) mention that emotionally intelligent teachers can understand and control emotions of themselves and others and can also use coping strategies in different situations. Therefore, they can control prolonged stress, which leads to job burnout. Regarding the negative relationship between teachers` reflectivity and burnout, Larrivee and Cooper (2006) believe that reflective teachers free themselves from “routine and impulsive acts, enabling them to act in a more deliberative and intentional manner” (p. 1). When teachers engage in a routine action continuously, they eventually feel powerless in affecting their future jobs and this can in turn lead to burnout (Larrivee & Cooper, 2006). In addition, negative correlations between all the components of emotional intelligence and emotional exhaustion and depersonalization as the components of burnout and also negative significant correlations between interpersonal and general mood with lack of personal accomplishment were found. High adaptability can help teachers to adjust themselves to different situations and find useful solutions for solving difficult problems in their work environment easily and ultimately makes them less susceptible to depersonalization or emotional exhaustion. Moreover, interpersonal and intrapersonal components of emotional intelligence can help teachers to increase their personal accomplishment and decrease their level of depersonalization and emotional exhaustion. Interpersonal component is also related to social relationship and awareness of involvement and accomplishment of rules. Therefore, this component is necessary for job resistance, and it can increase personal accomplishment (Pishghadam & Sahebjam, 2012). There were negative correlations among some of the components of reflectivity and components of burnout. Akbari (2007) believes that, teachers` reflection on their own personal characteristics can lead to shaping and changing teachers` beliefs, values, and their personality and can finally improve their performance. Teachers` reflection can help them to recognize their own capabilities and can ultimately lead to an increase in their personal accomplishment. Moreover, teachers can reflect on their interaction with learners to improve their interpersonal relationship. This can finally help them to reduce their working environment stress. In addition, significant differences were found in teachers’ emotional intelligence regarding their educational degree. However, there were no significant differences in the level of teachers’ burnout and reflectivity with respect to their educational degree. On the part of components, it was revealed that intrapersonal, stress management, and general mood of emotional intelligence along with the critical component of reflectivity were different among teachers holding different educational degrees.
It can be concluded that level of emotional intelligence and reflectivity in EFL teachers were negatively correlated with their degree of burnout. Moreover, there were negative and significant relationships among most of the components of emotional intelligence and reflectivity and those of burnout. Based on the results of this study, it can be recommended that reflection and emotional learning programs be incorporated into teacher training courses. These programs can help teachers to develop their awareness of emotional intelligence and reflectivity skills and increase their skills in each of the components of these variables. Therefore, they can develop their interpersonal and intrapersonal abilities to become aware of their own and others emotions and increase their relationship with people. In addition, they can be more optimistic toward their life, job, students and people who are involved with them emotionally. Developing each of these components can help teachers to decrease their level of burnout. Moreover, these programs can increase teachers’ skills in each of the components of teachers` reflectivity. Therefore they can increase their motivation to take part in different workshops, seminars and conferences related to their teaching methods. Consequently, they can develop their teaching quality and decrease their level of stress which may lead to burnout.

The field of English as a foreign language (EFL) education has more recently witnessed changes of perspectives in favor of developing intercultural communicative competence over communicative competence. In light of this new outlook, the present study was an attempt to explore the way EFL teachers define the objectives of language education, to what extent their conceptions allow for the incorporation of teaching foreign-language culture, and whether they define the objectives in terms of intercultural competence or the more traditional approach to teaching culture. More specifically, the study focused on teachers’ teaching practices via an analysis of the balance of time they attribute to culture in contrast to language in their lessons.
To this end, 120 Iranian EFL teachers who were all English teachers with 1 to 6 years of teaching experience in private English institutes of Mashhad, along with 39 M.A. and 81 B.A., with an average age range of 20 to 28, were asked to complete a Foreign Language Teacher and Intercultural Communicative Competence Scale. The scale has different sections: teachers’ general teaching goals, teachers’ perceptions of the objectives of foreign language education, teachers’ perceptions of foreign language teaching in a foreign language teaching context, teachers’ perceptions of the time they devote to culture teaching and teachers’ willingness to devote more time to culture teaching. The scale mainly focuses on English language teachers’ attitudes, beliefs, and performance in the classroom. It is comprised of Likert items and some open-ended items for each section of the scale. Besides, four questions were asked to cover the participants’ demographic features such as their gender, age, qualifications, and their teaching experience. The participants were teaching at intermediate, upper intermediate, and advanced level.
The findings indicate that teachers define culture teaching more in the traditional sense of passing on the information regarding the foreign culture and far less in terms of promoting the acquisition of intercultural skills, knowledge, and attitudes desirably needed for the intercultural competent learner. Culture teaching is mainly overshadowed by the objective of improving learner's linguistic competence. They prefer language learning objectives and intend to promote linguistic competence of their learners in their classes and culture learning, which is a pivotal objective in intercultural education, is not considered important for them. Most of the teachers failed to meet the main required skills for teaching intercultural communicative competence skills. In addition, despite their awareness of the cultural differences and their willingness to spend more time on this issue, they did not have an adequate level of understanding of how to promote their learner's intercultural skills and they devoted their teaching time more over language teaching than culture teaching mainly due to their lack of time and tight schedule and curriculum and the wash back effect of the main proficiency tests of English as well.
These findings are discussed in light of socio-cultural theory and the genetic approach to have a better understanding of teachers’ thinking, practice, and context regarding culture teaching. The genetic approach is an exploratory approach, rather than a descriptive one, which takes into account the genes and human development over four domains; namely, phylogenetic domain (development of humankind as a natural species), cultural-historic domain (development in terms of the broader external world within which human exists, i.e., the social, cultural, and historic basis for the development), the ontogenetic domain (development of the individual across the human life span) and the microgenetic domain (the concrete and the practical activity that individual engages in with the world around them). Thus, an observable activity of a teacher (micorgeny) is shaped by the background, experience, and history of the teacher (ontogeny) and the activity system with the broader expectations of language teacher and teaching (cultural-historic). Regarding the teaching objectives Iranian teachers employ in their classes, they microgenetically conform to the language teaching objectives. However, the ontogeny of the participants of the study, who were all academic and had academic education, was reflected first of all in the willingness they possess towards devoting more time to culture teaching and secondly, in the pupil-oriented teaching goals they perceive more important rather than the subject-oriented ones while the teachers stated that they have a tight curriculum with the assigned textbooks that should be covered every term. But it is considered that the cultural-historic domain of development, i.e., the demands of the society part of which refers to the needs of the parents, who mainly concern with the speaking skills of their children and the number of vocabulary items they acquire, as well as the needs of the students themselves, who are interested in improving their proficiency and accent in the English classes, have made the policy of the institutes much stronger to the extent to which it leads teachers to touch upon language teaching objectives and devote more time to language side of education. The next part of the finding was teachers’ definitions of culture teaching. It was revealed that in teachers’ perception knowledge is of more essential concern rather than skills and attitudes dimensions. That is to say, if teachers find the chance to touch upon the culture side of language education, it is limited to its knowledge dimension and restricted to passing on the knowledge from teachers to pupils; in fact, the skill component remains uncovered. To shed further lights upon the space exists between microgenetic and ontogenetic development of the participants (the educated academic teachers); cultural-historic domain once again should be considered. The inquiry reveals the fact that students define a good teacher as a person who is considered as a source of knowledge. As a matter of fact, the knowledge of the teacher is of more interest and preference rather than their skills of teaching. Thus, ecologically, the preference to teach the knowledge dimension of culture teaching can be justified from the knowledge-oriented context of Iran.

The translation of Persian poems necessitates translator’s fluency in the source and target languages as well as great knowledge about the delicacies of poetry and the intellectual, social, and cultural background of the poet. One of the problems in the process of translation is the incompatibility of the syntactic structures and morphological and grammatical features of the two languages. In translation studies, there has been much discussion over the notion of equivalence. Naida (1964) first introduced the notion of equivalence and talked of formal and dynamic equivalences. He was in favour of equivalent effect on the reader in source and target texts. But there have been few discussions on the criteria for the recognition of the equivalence. In a reader-oriented approach, the meaning of a literary text is the product of the interaction between the reader and the text itself and is created through the reading process. It is with such an approach that Khazaeefar (2015, p. 15) makes a mention of aesthetic equivalence for the first time. He believes that “from an aesthetic point of view, we should see how the translator reacts to the gaps or interpretable structures in the source text and how he has participated in the filling of these gaps”. In Khazaeefar’s 2015) view, aesthetic equivalence necessitates a balance in the degree of interpretability in the source text and the translation. The source of many of the attractive ambiguities in Hafez is the different and contradictory interpretations concerning the addressee in his poems. Persian lacks grammatical gender, and the third person pronoun in Persian /?u/, which refers to the beloved of Hafez, defies translation since in English, the translator has to use either masculine or feminine pronouns, each of which provokes a different interpretation.
Hafez is a controversial poet who is both admired and criticized by many people from different literary, social, and religious backgrounds. The language he uses in his poems is by far the most complicated language among the poems. The complexity does not lie in the lexical or structural ambiguities in his lines but rather in the hidden intention of the poet. His poetry is full of allusions, ironies, and other figures of speech, all of which are differently interpreted by various scholars. He talks about wine, ecstasy, beloved, kiss, cuddle, union, sin, heaven, hell, faith, atheism, and many other concepts, but never clearly takes a clear position as to what he really means. Most of these ambiguities are lexical, but sometimes the source of the ambiguity is the nature of Persian grammar. Persian as a language without grammatical gender well allows the speaker to hide the reference of the pronouns and leaves them open to different interpretations. In English, the sentences I love him and I love her have two clearly different interpretations. One cannot use him for female or her for male referents. In the first sentence the speaker loves a female person (or thing) and in the second a male one. In Persian, both sentences are expressed in the same way: It is usually claimed that Hafez is a mystical poet. He is the lover of God and whatever he says, be it wine and ecstasy or kiss and cuddle, he means he is looking for the union with his Lord. But there is a good number of cons who believe that Hafez is just an ordinary man who cherishes hedonism and always craves for women, wine, and pure pleasure. Persian lines leave this discussion open by means of their double-sense interpretations. But the problem is doubled when it comes to the translation of these lines into a gender-marking language such as English. The translator cannot render Hafez’s lines without taking side on one of the several possible interpretations about the reference of the third person pronoun. Translating the Persian /?u/ as she leads to a hedonistic interpretation while translating it as he may raise some accusations of homosexuality, a phenomenon not rare in that era especially among many of his contemporary poets with clearly erotic poems in those days. Another option is to translate /?u/ as He with capital H to emphasize that God is meant. The present study surveys samples of the translation of Hafez’s lyrics by three translators, namely, Shahriar Shahriari, Behrooz Homayun far, and Henry Wilberforce Clarke. It analyzes and classifies the different methods in the translation of this pronoun. Twenty three lyric poems were selected from Hafez Collection (Divan) and the lines which had a kind of third person pronoun (subject, object, or possessive) were extracted. The translations by the three scholars were analyzed to detect the way they had rendered these pronouns. The findings show that all the three translators used he, He, and she interchangeably and no unified strategy was discovered on the part of the translators. This shows that the notion of true and virtual love is still a controversial issue in Hafez’s poetry and the translators as readers share their confusion with their audience. This is in a sense a sample of the application of aesthetic equivalence proposed by Khazaeefar (2015).

Translation studies as an interdisciplinary domain of research cannot afford to neglect the link between translation and psychology. The psychological aspect of translators can be related to those areas in which they deal with mental and cognitive processes during the translational process. One of the prominent factors of such cognitive processes is intelligence (Gardner, 2004 as cited in Brown, 2007) which plays a critical role in the conduct of learning and completing languagerelated tasks such as translation. Translation is an intelligent activity which involves complex conscious and unconscious processes on the part of the translator (Robinson, 2007). It can readily be admitted that among the so many mental factors contributing to the task of translation, intelligence plays the critical role in translatorial success; however, little is known about the role of narrative intelligence (NI), “the capacity both to formulate (compose, narrate) and to follow (understand, read) the story of our own life” (Randall, 1999, p. 13), in relation to translation. The human makes sense of the world around them through narratives (Bruner, 1987; Randall, 1999). The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of the level of NI on the translation quality from English to Persian, on the participants who are native speakers of Persian. The current study was an attempt to address the following questions: 1) Is there a significant correlation between the participants’ translation quality and their narrative intelligence?2) Is there a significant difference between the translation qualities of the participants’ with high versus low narrative intelligence?
Theoretical Framework: This research is based on Randall’s taxonomy of NI. To Randall (1999), narrative intelligence consists of the following five subcategories, each of which 5 Corresponding Author: incorporates to our vision of an event. Emplotment is the ability of editing what is happening or what has happened through our senses, shortening an event, handling what is recognized as conflict or trouble, and prioritizing what seems to be relevant from irrelevant in the situation to fulfill the present aim of a narrator. Characterization is the ability to sum up, and to characterize a working picture of ourselves and others based on the existing and evolving evidence. Narration is believed by Randall (1999) to be the heart of narrative intelligence. By narration a person “conveys to others what is going on, has gone, or may go on, sensitive to what they understand in terms of ‘logical’ between events, causes and consequences”(p. 13).Genre- ation is the ability to arrange the event in rather expected patterns (e.g., tragic, comic, ironic). This is true for both narrating and experiencing the events. The matization is the ability to recognize the main ideas of the story from repeated happenings in the event, and to provide explanations about why something has happened several times.
As for the sample, 104 female and male Iranian final year undergraduate students of English translation participated in this study. Based on a criterion sampling technique, only those students were invited to participate who were native speakers of Persian and had learnt English as a foreign language. As another criterion, only those students were invited with a GPA of 17.5 or higher out of 20. The participants’ age ranged from 21 to 37 (M=23.40, SD=3.47). To measure the participants’ NI, the Narrative Intelligence Scale (NIS) designed by Pishghadam, Baghaei, Shams, and Shamsaee(2011) was utilized. A passage in English was used for translation from the foreign language to mother language. The passage contained 150 words to assess the translation quality of students in this study. The researchers used the holistic translation quality assessment model validated by Waddington (2001).
Regarding the first research question, it was found that there exists a correlation between participant translators and their NI. Obviously, translators who know how to convey the meaning into their mother language are more successful; translators who are well familiar with a network of cognitive approaches to translation can reach a working interpretation of the foreign text. Moreover, it was found that out of the five subscales of NI, characterization had the highest correlation with translation quality. Characterization refers to presenting a complete “working picture” of oneself in the process of narrating stories (Randall, 1999, p.18).Regarding the second research question, if there is a significant difference between the translation qualities of high and low narrative intelligence translators, it was revealed that there exists such a significant difference. It was concluded that the high narrative intelligence translators had a better performance on their translations than the low narrative intelligent translators.
Conclusion& Suggestions: Initially, the results of the study in dicate the considerable role of narrative in cognitive and mental processes of translation. Therefore, training translators on how to develop such NI abilities seems quire relevant and even necessary. Also, in the context of translator education in universities, there seems to be a gap in the curriculum of translator education programs in terms of how to develop and enhance cognitive abilities and narrative intelligence among students. Furthermore, translator trainere ducation programs can employ the fruitful results of NI improvement in education; they can become more practice-based rather than theory-oriented. Further research on the role of NI on translation and a variety of its related issues may be quite necessary, such as the relationship between NI and its subcategories with literary translation, specialized translation, and professional translation which seem inconclusive and open to research.