فصلنامه مطالعات زبان و ترجمه
سال چهل و هشتم شماره 3 (پاییز 1394)

The translation of literary works in Iran has always been subject to social and political conditions, intellectual tendencies, and dominant ideologies of the related historical period. Hence, in each period the translators were inclined to translate specific literary works according to the beliefs and viewpoint of a distinguished political and social group. Thus, the translated literary works of each period have general characteristics originating from the cultural and social-political conditions and the dominant intellectual beliefs (Mirabedini, 1987, vol. 1, pp. 13-14). One of the most important and famous periods whose social and political events have influenced cultural and intellectual changes is the period between 1941 and 1953 (i.e. during Tudeh Party and the leftist ideology dominance). From the beginning of its dominance in 1941, Tudeh Party paid so much attention to translation and it trained the best Iranian intellectuals such as translators; therefore, from 1941 onwards most of the translators of literary works were from political intellectuals and the leftists played an effective role in translation (Amir faryar, 2001, p. 70). Therefore, in the present research an attempt has been made to investigate the influences of Tudeh Party and the leftist ideology on the selection of literary works for translation without any prejudice. To this end, the translated literary works published from 1941 to 1953 were analyzed. The results showed that more than half of the works selected for translation could be placed in one of the following three categories: socialist realistic works, the leftist writer's works, and realistic works.
The research framework for analyzing the data is the visible and invisible concepts of the leftist ideology according to which the translated literary works published from 1941 to 1953 were analyzed. According to the list of the printed translated books from the beginning to 1991collected by Islamic Researches Foundation of Astan Quds, these works are 260 literary works from the literatures of considered countries during this period. Therefore, first, the literary works corresponding to the visible and invisible concepts of the leftist ideology are categorized by the investigation of the translator's introductions and the theories of literary researchers who introduce the writer's background and the subject and content of their works. Then, further evidence would be found about the works corresponding to the leftist ideology by selecting the most important literary works from each categories and applying Leo lowenthal's theory of sociology of literature (1948) to it.
The investigation of the list of printed translated books from the beginning to 1991 showed that during the period between 1941 and 1953, the translation of literary works from Russia, France, Germany, England, and finally America along with the literature of South America and Eastern Europe was respectively taken into consideration by the translators of that period. By studying the translator's introductions and the theories of literary researchers who introduce the writer's background and the content of their works, common obvious and unobvious points between different writers and their works are understood, and this is due to the specific political conditions of that period. In this way, the writers and the works that correspond to the leftist ideology are classified.
Since the visible concepts of the leftist thinking are found in socialist realistic works in an ideological, propagandistic and biased way, this doctrine was taken into a great consideration by the members of Tudeh Party and the translators were naturally inclined to translate some works from this doctrine under the influence of Tudeh Party. Therefore, 37 works from Gorky, Sholokhov, Ostrovsky, and Chernyshevsky were translated, which formed 14 percent of the whole translated literary works during that period.
In addition, during the period between 1941 and 1953 the translation of the other leftist writer's literary works in which the visible concepts of the leftist thinking could be found was developed by Tudeh Party's members and translators (Mirabedini, 2013, p. 93). Therefore, 46 works from France, London, Ehrenburg, Shaw, Barbusse, Aragon, Laffitte, Fuchik, Tressell, Amado, Saghers, Steinbeck, and Voynich were translated, which formed 17 percent of the whole translated literary works during that period.
The translation of realistic works was also impressively developed during these years. These works are not necessarily considered as leftist works, but they were taken into consideration by the translators of that period, because they have common characteristics with the leftist thinking according to their social criticism about the current condition and also the negation and change of it. Therefore, 67 works from Chekhov, Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky, Turgenev, Twain, Balzac, Stendhal, Flaubert, Dickens, Hemingway, Gogol, and Lermontov were translated, which formed 25 percent of the whole translated literary works during that period.
During the period between 1941 and 1953, the translators, who were influenced by Tudeh Party and the leftist ideology in different ways, became active in the process of the translation of books, and they were inclined to translate the literary works corresponding to the leftist thinking. Therefore, the investigation of the translated literary works during this period showed that from 260 translated literary works, 150 works (i.e. more than half of the translated literary works [57%]) were somehow in the realm of leftist thinking or had common characteristics with it.
It is found that the translators and the selection of literary works for translation were influenced by Tudeh Party and the leftist ideology in one of the most important historical periods. This is an important issue, because it showed that the selection of an important part of the literary works for translation was influenced by the dominant leftist thinking. Therefore, in addition to the widespread and impressive influence of Tudeh Party on Iranian intellectuals and translators, the direct influence of the leftist ideology on the selection of literary works for translation can be confirmed.

Gustave Flaubert, the leader of realism and the modern novel, is an influential French novelist. It should be noted that the careful attention in choosing the words distinguishes his style from other writers. His biggest concern in life is social problems. His masterpiece Madame Bovary is a novel which influences many famous romans. Although some of his works have been translated into Persian, these works have been translated again and again which means his works have the important place in Persian literature. This article will attempt to examine the position of the author, his work, and his influence on Persian writers and their styles.
Theoretical Framework: Gustave Flaubert is are a list, social and political writer. Flaubert loved literature when he was a young boy. He started writing and created some books that became masterpieces. These were often fanciful stories with the theme of autobiography (autobiography) (i.e. Asmar[Smarh]). His interest in writing history was influenced by his teacher in high school. He went to Paris to study legal rights after completing high school at the age of 18. Death of his father, sister, and his passionate love of Mrs. Eliza Schlesinger (Elisa Schlésinger) influenced his esprit because he did not forget it. That is why his novels are the mirror of his life. Elisa Schlesinger inspired works such as Diary of a madman (Mémoires dun Fou) (which depicts mystical love), November (Novembre) (which tells the love of land and physical love), and Sentimental Education (L'Éducation sentimentale). He always detested the bourgeois class. He attacked bourgeois type with the character of Homais (Homais) in Madame Bovary (Madame Bovary).The collection of his works can be divided into three categories: the first category is anti quityi son which Salammbô (Salammbô) and Hrvdya (Hérodias) reflect. The second category of works of art such as the legend of St. Julian (La légende de Saint Julienl' Hospitalier) and third category is fictional works such as the Temptation of Saint Antoine (La Tentation de Saint Antoine). At first glance, a kind of contradiction is evident in Flaubert’s work; however ,there is one thing in common behind these different works, and that is the beauty of art.
Realistic styles, literary arrays, the structure of rich sentences and deep psychological analyzes illustrate the features of his writing. Deep Flaubert’s thoughts influenced the worldview of the other great writers and writing styles .In writing Madame Bovary, Flaubert opens new windows to realism. Throughout this book, Madame Bovary, the blame against romanticism is evident. Despite the fact that Flaubert inherited his writing style, words, and songs from Romantics, finally he concluded that he should harness the power of his imagination. This article describes the researches on translations of his works too.
In this article ,first we intend to introduce Flaubert and realism school and we consider their impact on Persian literature. In doing so, the East impact on Flaubert and his writing techniques are examined. Then, the history of translation, its evolution, and the factors involved in translations are exhibited. This article attempts to survey all of the Flaubert’s translations as far as possible.
There is no doubt that a lot of research on Gustave Flaubert and his work has be end one. We sometimes encounter more than 10 different translations of his novels. Despite the fact that Flaubert is one of the world's great authors, his books were translated into Farsi very late; however, this issue can also be very beneficial. It is important that the translators have their own styles.
Conclusions& Suggestions: Gustave Flaubert is one of the greatest novelists. Flaubert's careful choice of words and figure of speech is unique and clearly shows the excessive obsession of Flaubert in the creation of a literary work. Translations of western writers altered the writing style and fiction in Iran so that the role of other writers out shines that of Flaubert. However, Flaubert’s work could not be successful (in Iran). Like Balzac the folk did not pay attention to his masterpieces; however, Madame Bovary gained big success among Iranians, and his books were translated into Farsi one after another.

According to the source language and target language differences in the nature and structure and other cultural and style factors, the translator sometimes has no way other than making changes in the source text; therefore, some target-oriented scholars such as Ladmiral calls translators for exerting changes and modifications in carious structural areas for the fluency and legibility of the translated text to be enhanced, which can set the grounds for the feature of recreation to be taken place in the rendered text. The current study is an attempt to criticize and analyze the structural modifications carried out by Tesuji and Eghlidi in the translation of one thousand and a night from the four perspectives of adjustment in the verbal syntactic constructs, in addressing the style, in eloquence, and in phonetics. The results of the study indicate that Tesuji and Eghlidi have adopted a target-oriented approach to the translocation and adjustment of the sentence structure.
In rendering by Tesuji, there can be found numerous specimens in which appropriate structural adjustments and modifications have taken place; however, in the majority of the cases the book style has also suffered from such adaptations, where as Eghlidi has tackled the structural adjustments to a smaller extent. In addition, it is worth mentioning that his translation enjoys less legibility.
Theoretical framework: If we are wishing to handle the Ladmiral theory through making use of a simple scientific language, we have to declare that Ladmiral believes that the semantic should be conveyed at any cost and the solutions to such a problem can only be actualized in practice. The title chosen by him for his book is clearly reflective of such an idea, “translation, theorems for translation (practice, solution, theory).In this way, in his book and in other articles he presents issues and components for translations which are so diverse.
The first issue posited by Ladmiral deals with the structural differences. Such an issue is related to the language structure or grammar, the structure of every language, which is different according to the spirits, and to the attitudes intrinsic in every nation. In this sense ,Ladmiral believes that the translator should not only be necessarily bound to the source language sentence structure, but also to the processes such as rationalization that the translator arranges for the verbal constructs in a manner that they look proportionate to the target language context while they are found fluent and legible by the target language users.
Structural adjustments in translation are among the most important components of the Ladmiral theory. The recognition and the survey of such components cannot be fulfilled regardless of the other indicators and issues common to a translation text, because legibility is created subsequent to the structural modifications and it is one of the other components of the theories proposed by Ladmiral. Another component which has been dealt with in the present study is the subject of translational epistemology. That is, paying attention to the stylistic features of books and trying to keep them as intact as possible because by means of such features the author has a point and probably intends to convey a certain idea. Generally speaking, what is of the greatest importance in translating narrative books such as the fiction of one thousand and one nights is to increase the legibility and the attractiveness of the book and also not to damage the book’s narrative stylistic features. Undoubtedly, such a thematic point can only be accomplished through the adoption of opportunities and systematic structural adjustments.
The current study is based on a descriptive-analytical method and the authors are seeking to deal with the structural adjustments in the translations by Tesuji and Eghlidi in four different areas (syntax, speech, eloquency, and phonetic). The current study has been laid upon the foundations of Ladmiral theory. He believes that structural modifications can contribute to the recreation and legibility of the translation while the translator should also try to avoid using the items that disturb the book's stylistic features according to the translational epistemologies.
A great fraction of the structural adjustments pertains to the verbal syntactic constructs. One thousand and one nights, which has been written in Arabic, employs the Arabic language constructs in transferring the stories contents and incidents while the Persian language translators are compelled to cast them into Persian language format.
The second part is related to the adjustments in addressing which indicates that the translator is to modify the sentence addressing styles or the author’s point of view in order for the rendered context to be fluent and eloquent. As it is observed in the context of one thousand and one nights, the speech in a narrative work is connected to the way the narrator narrates the contents of the story and that what mechanisms are used by the narrator to advance the events and create coherence among them.
The third part which deals with the eloquence adjustments concerns with the efforts paid to loyally recreate the main text in the target language through the use of various literary devices to be able to create the same effects on readers of the translated works as the original text. In this way, when it comes to the eloquence structural adjustments in one thousand and one nights in Persian translations by Tesuji and Eghlidi, we mean the very few cases that the storywriter has favorably and unboundedly used.
The last part of the modifications pertains to the phonetic structures of the one thousand and one nights context; it is found to have a slow and flowing rhyme except in some few cases. One of the other factors causing a rhythmic structure to be appeared in a text is related to the methods of storytelling, which is influenced by the oral originality of the book. One such method is the presence of the poems in the original context of the book and both of the translations have been found to convey this phonetic style; however, the translation rendered by Eghlidi seems to be more loyal to the type of the phonology, its quality and quantity.
One thousand and one nights includes two different aspects. Occasionally, a cliché structure, disproportionate, and arrhythmic rules are seen in the book while some times it is of a consistent and stable style. Being loyal to the source text, Eghlidi has created a book structurally more similar to the original book; however ,Tesuji has ended in a structure different from the original book through disloyal and unduly interactions he has made. Tesuji, who has adopted an unduly free approach toward translating the book, has made use of structural adjustment insofar as it can be helpful in completing and legibility of the book; thus, his rendering of the book displays more beauty and attraction and it has a more fluent and more legible structure and arrangements. Of course, his structural modifications have been exaggerated in some parts as he has ignored the book’s stylistic features such as eloquence and phonetic functions of the descriptions.

According to Toury (1995), translation is a norm-based behavior. In the course of their direct and indirect trainings, translators familiarize themselves with the linguistic, cultural and social norms which are used by the contemporary translators and later, as professional translators, use them consciously or unconsciously in their translations. In other words, translations are written under the influence of the linguistic, cultural and social norms of the target culture. However, Toury believes that translators are free to follow or reject a norm even though they prefer to follow the norms to avoid punishment. The present paper is based on the hypothesis that there has been a change in the style of the Quran translations after the Islamic Revolution. This new style is literary as opposed to the word-for-word translations published before the Revolution. The translation of Elahi Qomsheie was a turning point in that it was neither literary nor word-for-word. The great number of literary translations that followed it showed a strong tendency toward a literary style. It is hypothesized that these translations provide a clear example of the influence of norms on translation. While each new translation is expected to present a new linguistic and stylistic style, the study shows that the translations not only differ in style, but also in their interpretation of the meaning of the Quran.
The research hypothesis states that most of the contemporary Persian translations of the Quran show a literary style.In other words, it is hypothesized that the translators of these texts have had literary backgrounds and considered the Quran as a literary text. It is further hypothesized that the trend toward literary translation has gradually established a norm for the new translations to follow. To prove the research hypothesis, three different translations of the surah Al-Shams has been selected and compared with each other.
What are literary features? And how is the literary style defined? The term style has been given various definitions. A literary style has also been described based on various features .To meet the goals of the study , style is defined as comprising three sets of elements: words, figurative language, and syntax. These three elements can be combined in different ways to form different styles. Words provide the most important feature. To a great extent, the translator can change the text style through their choice of words. For example, the high frequency of colloquial words used in a text gives the text a colloquial style. The same is true about literary words. Syntax is probably the second most important element of determining the style of a text. Each language has its own syntactic rules while each language has also syntactic rules marking a certain period. Some of these rules are used in all types of texts while others are used exclusively in literary texts. Finally, figurative expressions are often used with a high frequency in literary texts. To verify the hypotheses of the study, a surah of the Quran was selected, and three contemporary translations of the surah were compared with each other. The basis of the comparison was the literary elements mentioned above. As for the procedure used, first a translation was made of the surah in a stylistically neutral style, and then the translations were compared with this neutral translation.
In light of great books such as the Quran, each new translation is expected to be different to justify itself. The difference could be justified in terms of hermeneutics, style or audience. However, both in the past and the present the translations of the Quran have followed suit. The translations appearing before the one done by Elahi Qomshei were word-for-word; they were not meant to be beautiful. In fact, the main goal was to achieve accuracy; by accuracy they meant word-for-word translation ,nor were such translations addressed to a particular audience. On the contrary, the contemporary translations do have a particular audience; one that is educated and intellectual appreciating the aesthetic and literary aspects of the translations. The contemporary translators also defined accuracy not in terms of the source, but also the target language. The research hypothesis was that in each period translators may prefer to follow the accepted and established norms rather than present new experiences in translation. This is particularly true in cases where following the norms is politically or economically encouraged. A change of the audience required a new type of the Quran translation; one that happened to be received warmly by the political system. It was no coincidence that almost all the translators who were engaged in the translations of the Quran were literary men, neither religious scholars nor linguists and translation scholars. The great tendency of these translators towards using a literary language is shown in the analysis of the three translations of the same surah.

By borrowing the motifs of the German 18th-century philosophical theories and applying it to the areas such as linguistics and translation ,José Ortega y Gasset, a Spanish philosopher ,founded his philosophy called "vital reason" or "ratiovitalism". His theory was mainly focused on the decline of Spain and the broader context of the cultural issues in Europe as well as its tangible historical issues. The prominent aspect of this thinking system is relying on justification and life, defined in contrast with the thoughts of Gasset’s contemporaries (Graham, 1994).
General Theories and Viewpoints: Following long discussion and contemplation on the nature of the existence and comparing his opinions with those of the contemporaries, he put aside the theological concerns and focused more on culture; Gasset, through researching in Simmel’s theories, found that there was a difference between life as a process and life as a cultural fact, whereas culture is the representation of the mixing both approaches (Dust, 1989). He employs Cohen’s logical system to come to an understanding of life not as a quest for identity but as a scientific rationale. In his influential book entitled “Historia como sistema", Gasset proposes a disbelief in scientific research due to the flaw in their definition of human being (Mann, 1999). Through a reductive existentialism, he challenges the historical prejudices that man possesses a nature known to science and suggests a "radical reality" based on which the individual’s life has three main features: having the conscious challenging quality, making decision from among possibilities and limiting the possibilities.
A Critical Reading of Translational Viewpoints: As for his pragmatic background ,for Gasset, stability is far beyond human’s reach. Therefore, all of the human activities including translating are impossible, yet unavoidable, since they reflect an easy-yet-difficult situation, falling far out of human’s reach, thus any effort in human affairs are in strive for utopia (Graham, 2001). Consequently, Gasset portrays the easy-yet-difficult position of language: on the one hand, it makes possible and eases humans’ communication. On the other hand, it does not lend itself to function analysis. Translators always try to appropriate foreign topics and concepts to their own culture and language in order to make it included/mixed with their mother tongues while the form of presenting meaning would be different with totally/semi different effects in the target language (Gasset,1992; White, 2003), which is just the beginning of utopian season for translation.In addition, while making a translation closer to the original text, retaining and transmitting new literary genres don not cause mistakes in understanding the original text and in mediating between languages (Gasset, 1992; Schulte and Biguenet, 1992). In his description of this choice, Gasset depictsvarious aspects reflected in the various translations of a text (of course, compared to the original text), in each of which there is an aspect of meaning. Therefore, a fluent and beautiful translation is undoubtedly a barrier to some aspects of meaning (Chang, 2006), as it destroys the text’sabnormalities.
Gasset places the translator in an atmosphere resembling the inter-lingual fuzzy space, which is in complete accordance with the reality. However, where it comes to mediation, seemingly the translator acts in an atmosphere devoid of the two languages in which he interacts with the original language and writer, and then transmits this interaction in the form of translation which is not factual .Although the space for understanding and interacting is the source/original language, the space for reconstruction and creation is the target language and all of those understandings would not benefit the audiences before writing. The utopian position of the translator is closely related to the joy of understanding and the sorrow caused by inability in its full transmission in the form of translation while the conversation with the writer makes it joyful .Being indebted and unable to transmit, it leaves the translator e with sorrow. In addition, when Gasset talks about the stylistic features as the criteria for this joy and sorrow; in fact, he targets literary texts in which stylistic features and the reflection of writer’s self are of a greater importance rather than the mere transmission of meaning. Generally speaking ,it can be claimed that Gasset’s theory of translating/translationis close to those of functional theorists, as he considers translation a representation of an interaction rather than a representation of the original text, which can be exactly compared to the function and profile of the original text.

The present study aims to investigate the potentials of two significant translation paradigms in children’s literature: 1) Skopos paradigm; and 2) equivalence paradigm. The former seeks equivalence in the source text while the latter seeks it in the target text. To this end, three translations of “The Little Prince” by Mohammad Ghazi, Ahmad Shamlou, and Abolhassan Najafi were analyzed. The results showed that the translation by Shamloo, unlike the two other translators, was target-oriented and is based on the Skopos paradigm which fully considersthe children as its specific audience. The two other translators adopted a text-based approach in their translations and sometimes used words and phrases that were complex for children to understand. These two translations might conveniently fall under the equivalence paradigm. The findings indicate that Skopos is a more exhaustive paradigm when dealing with children’s literature as compared with the equivalence paradigm.
Adopting a qualitative approach, this study analyses three translations of the Little Prince's story. to do so, the excerpts of the original text and three of its translations (i.e Abolhassan Najafi, Mohammad Ghazi, and Ahmad Shamlou) were analyzed. The theoretical frameworks used in this study are two important paradigms in translation studies, namely the equivalence and Skopos paradigms. In fact, the selected translations were analyzed from the perspective of these two paradigms.
Based on the analysis of the three mentioned translations of the story, it can be concluded that the extent to which a chlidlren literature story might be successful is highly related to its particular audience, namely the children. The language should be simple and understandable and avoid any kinds of complexities. In this regard, Nida (1969) believes that “the differences between the translations can usually be attributed to three main factors: 1) the nature of the message; 2) the aim(s) of the author and by proxy, the translator; 3) thetype of audience” (as cited in Hatim &Munday, 2004, p. 164)
In children's literature, the nature of the message, the purpose of the author (translator), and the audience is very clear. Nida (1969) also believes that the decoding ability in any language includes four following levels
“1)the capacity of children, whose vocabulary and cultural experience are limited;
2) the double-standard capacity of new literates, who can decode oral messages with facility but whose ability to decode written messages is limited;
3)the capacity of the average literate adult, who can handle both oral and written messages with relative ease;
4) the unusually high capacity of specialists (doctors, theologians, philosophers, scientists, etc.), when they are decoding messages within their own area of specialization. Obviously a translation designed for children cannot be the same as one prepared for specialists, nor can a translation for children be the same as one for a newly literate adult” (as cited in Hatim &Munday, 2004, p. 166).
According to Nida , children have the least ability to decode the message than the other three groups. Thus, in translations for children this essential point should be taken into account. The three analyzed translations revealed that the translation by Shamlou paid more attention to the children as compared with the two others translations. Using simple words, dynamic, and fluent language, he provides a fluent translation which is devoid of complexity and easier to understand for children. But the two other translations by Najafi and Ghazi have taken a different approach as compared with Shamloo and have more complex words and a language that makes it difficult for children to understand. Based on the analysis, Shamlou’ stranslation can be considered under Skopos paradigm, whereas the two other translations have an equivalence-based approach and are classified under the equivalence paradigm.
The present study analyzed three translations of “the Little Prince” story under the equivalence and Skopos paradigms. In the end, it was revealed that the translation by Shamlou is more fluent and reader-oriented. Using words such as “Akhtarak”, “Kavir”, “Sahra”, and so forth, Shamlou has provided a more understandable translation for his specific audience (i.e. children) and adolescents who have limited vocabulary and cultural experience.
Shamlou has also attempted to translate the text in a colloquial style; therefore, decoding the messages is simpler for children with low literacy levels. Thus, Shamloo, categorized under the Skopos paradigm while taking into account his specific audience (i.e. the children who have little cultural experience), has provided a more fluent translation. The other two translators adopted a text-based approach in their translations and sometimes used words and phrases which complicated the text for children to understand and follow. The translations provided by these two translators should be considered under the equivalence paradigm.