نشریه مطالعات آموزش و یادگیری
سال چهارم شماره 1 (پیاپی 62، بهار و تابستان 1391)

Constructivism has left a deep noteworthy impression on learning and teaching approaches. Constructivism helps to combine knowledge of the job and the method of doing it because knowledge is not detached from its context. From constructivist point of view, the most important goals of learning include problem- solving, reasoning, critical thinking, deliberate and active use of knowledge as well as self- regulation, therefore requiring teachers to have the adequate professional competencies as the guide and educational facilitator.Research basic question: Do the teachers have the constructive professional competence (contextualization, student- based interaction, interpretivism, and the qualitative evaluation) in the teaching process?Research The method of this study was descriptive employing a combination of quantitative (a questionnaire) and qualitative (interview and observation) approaches. To take the bias of the responsive individuals in the questionnaire into account, an interview was used aiming at gathering information about the interviewees, real life world and the meaning interpretation of the reviewed phenomenon. Similarly, the observation of the behavior as well as the environment around the individuals was utilized in this regard.The statistical population in the quantitative part of the present research included 2200 male teachers of humanities in the high schools of Mazandaran province. Sampling was a multi-stage cluster. Based on Morgan Table, 327 teachers were selected for this stage. For the qualitative part of the study normal cases were selected through purposive sampling. The statistical population included 45 teachers of humanities in Babolsar 13 of whom were selected for the interview. Also, in line with the purpose of the study the classes of 12 teachers were observed. Two data collection instruments were employed in the present study: A) A researcher made questionnaire consisting of 4 components and 42 questions: The components and indexes include contextualization, student-based interaction, interperativitism and evaluation. The reliability of the questionnaire, using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, was estimated to be 0.82. Opinions of experts and expert teachers were also used to make sure the questionnaire was valid.B) Simi-structured interviews and observations: To make sure of the validity of the interviews, after designing a number of open-ended questions, a pilot study was carried out through interviewing a few teachers. The interviews were recorded and the analyzed based on which the necessary changes were applied to the interview questions. To add to the reliability of the observations, teachers’ classes were observed for several sessions (2 to 4 sessions) consecutively. Inferential (T-test) statistics were used for the quantitative phase of the study. For the qualitative phase, the data were analyzed through the inductive method. According to the analysis of the questionnaire data, the average of the teacher's grades was 4.27 in "the contextualize component", 3.99 in "the student-based interaction" component, 3.89 in "the interpretivitism" component and 3.97 in "the qualitative evaluation". In other words, the average score of the teachers for their constructive professional competencies was 4.03 which is higher than the average. As a result, the teachers could be said to have the constructive professional competencies. The summary data table obtained from the interviews with the teachers indicated the opposite of what was expressed in the questionnaire. That is, for all the interviewed teachers except for one of them, the image taken from their classes was a traditional one which lacked a certain program. In the observations performed by the researcher, it became clear that the teachers did not use the constructivism approach indexes in their classroom and that teaching was accomplished traditionally based on the book and by presenting lectures in the classroom. The results obtained from the questionnaires, interviews and observations indicated an apparent contradiction. That is, based on the results obtained from the questionnaires, one can say that the teachers have the constructive professional competence and that constructivism exists based on the separation of the detached components in the teachers’ teaching process. But since the questionnaire results are mainly the teachers’ personal ideas and approaches, the results are not greatly reliable. The results of the qualitative part showed that the teacher's performance is not according to the principles of constructivism. The results of the observations in line with the interviews complete the contradiction found. Therefore, we can explain the contradiction in the research results in the sense that the teachers who think that they have the professional competences, do not in reality possess such qualities. Probably they have entered the data by bias and have tried to change the reality from what it is to what they want it to be! This issue was recognizable for the researchers during the interviews, meaning that in the interviews, the teachers firstly tried to express as their teaching methods what they desired to occur not what they really used. This issue became visible by the persistent questions.

Having understood the role self-efficacy beliefs play in student's learning and motivation, teachers and educators have extensively attended the ways one might develop as well as enhance such beliefs in academic settings. Social cognitive theory posits self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by environmental (teacher characteristics, direct and indirect reinforcement and class atmosphere) as well as personal factors. Based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this research investigated the effect of such factors on self-efficacy beliefs.Self-determination theory, a theoretical perspective of the social-cognitive approach to motivation, emphasizes three basic psychological needs necessary for individuals to satisfy their inherent motivation, personal well being and self-regulation. These needs (need for competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness) are said to be universal, innate and psychological (Ryan & Deci, 2000). SDT argues that social contexts that enhance or forestall such needs will invariantly impact one’s satisfaction of basic psychological needs, which will in turn produce different motivational, cognitive and behavioral outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Along the same lines, research has indicated that teachers’ motivational style (controlling versus autonomy-supportive) affects the ways students might be motivated towards engaging in academic tasks (Khoshbakht & Khayyer, 2004). Students with autonomy-supportive teachers are more intrinsically motivated (Khoshbakht & Khayyer, 2004) with higher perceptions of competence and self-esteem (Deci, Nezlek, & Sheinman, 1981; Ryan & Grolnick; 1986; and Reeve, 1998). Using Structural Equation Modeling, the present study seeks to investigate the relationships of teachers’ autonomy support with students’ psychological needs and self-efficacy in a specific domain (English course). Gaining insight into contextual predictors of self-efficacy can lay the grounds for an improved understanding and knowledge of how teachers’ motivational styles influence students’ self efficacy.Research Hypotheses: 1- Teachers’ perceived support of students’ autonomy directly influences students’ basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness).2- Basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness) directly influence students’ self-efficacy3- Teachers’ perceived support of students’ autonomy indirectly influences self-efficacy in students through autonomy, competence and relatedness. This research was Structural Equation Modeling in design, which is considered descriptive-correlation in nature. The population of the study included all the male and female students of grade one in high schools of Qom City in the academic year 2010-2011. Overall, 310 students (177 male and 133 female) were selected from the population through random cluster sampling. The instruments in this research included Learning Climate (Williams & Deci, 1996), Basic Psychological Needs (Ilardi et.al, 1993) and Self-efficacy (Middleton & Midgley, 1997) questionnaires. The psychometric properties of the instruments were confirmed by Chronbach' Alpha and confirmatory factor analysis. Results indicated that the relationship between all the variables of the study (perceived autonomy support by teacher, need for autonomy, competence and self-efficacy) was significant at 0.01. The results of structural equation modeling showed the direct influence of autonomy support on autonomy need (β=0.86), competence, (β=0.74) and relatedness (β=0.50) was significant at 0.01. Teacher’s autonomy support accounted for 73 percent of variance in need for autonomy, 54 percent of variance in need for competence and 25 percent of variance in need for relatedness. The direct influence of need for autonomy on self-efficacy (β =0.17) was significant at 0.01. In addition, direct influence of need for competence on self-efficacy (β=0.67) was significant at 0.01. Furthermore, basic psychological needs accounted for 41 percent of variance in self-efficacy. Finally, the results indicated that teacher autonomy support exerted an indirect influence upon students’ English self-efficacy; this influence is exerted through basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness), and therefore, the meditational role of these variables in the relationship between autonomy support by the teachers and self-efficacy is also confirmed. Goodness of fit indices for the model showed the data had good fit with the model (RMSEA, 0.06; GFI,. 90; AGFI,. 86; CFI,. 90; PNFI,. 74, X2/df, 2.09). The results of this study indicate when academic settings are autonomy- supportive, students feel they are autonomous; hence, they are inherently motivated to initiate, maintain and regulate their activities and they regard themselves as the cause of their behaviors; that is to say, satisfaction of basic psychological needs will make students enjoy their learning practices.Another finding of this study was the direct, positive influence of autonomy and competence on self efficacy. This finding is consistent with Furrer & Skinner (2003) and Reeve (2006). Teachers foster such intrinsic motivational resources through autonomy-supportive classrooms.The results also revealed that autonomy-support by teachers indirectly influenced student's self-efficacy through psychological needs. This finding accords with SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Perception of an autonomy-supportive classroom by students will help them develop valuable intrinsic motivation variables (such as autonomy, competence and relatedness) and therefore increase their self-efficacy. Accordingly, it is suggested teachers pave the grounds for the satisfaction of their student's psychological needs; it is believed this will lead to positive outcomes in terms of the student's academic achievement. As self-efficacy beliefs entail the development of sense of agency, on the one hand, and positive attitudes towards one's abilities, on the other, teachers can enhance self-efficacy in students by satisfying their need for autonomy and competence. Teachers might also help students satisfy their need for relatedness through fostering positive classroom communications and cooperative learning.

According to Guilford (1967) the most important concept in understanding creativity is divergent thinking. Guilford specified fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration as being abilities that are necessary elements of divergent thinking. To generate a large amount of ideas is fluency. Flexibility is a mental ability which is defined as generating many types of ideas by shifting easily from one class of mental associations to another. Producing ideas that are unique or infrequent is considered as originality. Elaboration is the ability to extend an idea beyond the initial thought. Renzulli (1982) stated that gifted behavior reflects an interaction among three basic clusters of human traits: above average general or specific abilities, high levels of task commitment, and high levels of creativity. Sternberg and Grigorenko (2002) believed that creative work requires applying and balancing analytical, synthetic, and practical abilities. According to cognitive information processing theory self-regulation is conceptually defined as an active, constructive, and cognitive process (Wolters, Pintrich, & Karabenick, 2003). The key concept in self-regulation is mental mediation. This means learning is an active process which is regulated by the conscious mind.The purpose of the present study was to investigate the predictive pattern of mathematics self-regulation strategies for dimensions of creativity among the students of schools for special talents, public schools for high achievers, and regular public schools.Research questions: 1- Is there a relationship between mathematics self-regulation strategies and dimensions of creativity?2- To what extent are dimensions of creativity predicted by self-regulation strategies? Participants: A sample of 507 first year high school students (259 girls and 248 boys) with the age mean of 15 years and 6 months, and standard deviation of 8 months were selected from schools for special talents, public schools for high achieving students, and regular public schools by the use of stratified-cluster sampling. Instruments: Mathematics Self-Regulating Scale (Seif, 2011) and Multiple-Choice Paper-Pencil Questionnaire of Creativity (Abedi, 2002) were used as measuring instruments. The components of MSRS were general learning strategies, specific strategies for math problem solving, and meta-cognitive strategies. Fluency, elaboration, originality, and flexibility were four dimensions of Multiple-Choice Paper-Pencil Questionnaire of Creativity. Previous investigations in Iran have revealed the validity and reliability of these instruments. The results showed positive correlations between the components of mathematics self-regulation strategies and dimensions of creativity (r=0.15 to r=0.43, p<0.01). Multiple regression analysis revealed that specific problem solving strategies (β=0.31, p<0.0001) and meta-cognitive strategies (β=0.31, p<0.0001) are important predictors of fluency. Also, flexibility was predicted by specific problem solving strategies (β=0.22, p<0.002) and meta-cognitive strategies (β=0.20, p<0.008). The most important predictor of originality was specific problem solving strategies (β=0.32 p<0.0001). Elaboration was only predicted by the specific strategies (β=0.36 p<0.0001). In addition, students of schools for special talents and public schools for high achieving students, compared to regular public schools, students, showed more fluency and flexibility in thinking. General learning strategies which represent more simple and surface information processing strategies (for example, rehearsal), did not predict elaboration and originality. Using these general strategies negatively predicted fluency and flexibility. In contrast, more complex and high level information processing strategies (for example, specific problem solving and meta-cognitive strategies) were important predictors of creativity. The findings of the present study confirm the cognitive approach of creativity (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2002) which proposes that creative work requires applying and balancing analytical, synthetic, and practical abilities. Also these findings agree with cognitive information processing theory. According to this theory, the key concept of self-regulation is mental mediation (Wolters et al., 2003). Therefore, self regulation is an active mental process which is necessary for creative thinking in mathematics learning among the gifted and high achiever students.

In the past, the most important correlate of school performance was intellectual functioning, especially IQ, and little attention was paid to emotions. But children experience all kinds of emotions in school. Academic emotions are a new field of research in educational psychology. Research has shown a relationship between emotional intelligence and school performance. School anxiety is also indicated to be related to emotional intelligence. The results of different studies have shown that the higher the emotional intelligence is the less the school anxiety would be. One kind of school anxiety is test anxiety. Test anxiety and adjustment problems in school can have negative effects on school performance. The relationship between the emotional and general intelligence and school performance can be mediated by means of increasing adjustment or decreasing test anxiety. Research Question: Therefore, the research question of this study was as follows: "Does the model of relationships of IQ and emotional intelligence to school performance, mediated by test anxiety and school adjustment, fit the data?" Also the purpose of this study was to test the direct and indirect paths of the model. To this end, a model was designed with two mediators, test anxiety and adjustment, with emotional and intellectual intelligences as exogenous and school performance as endogenous variables. A sample of 395 first-grade high school students (197 male and 198 female) were selected randomly by multiple stage sampling method. In this research, the students completed Personal Information Test, Raven Test, Emotional Intelligence Inventory by Petrides and Furnham, Test Anxiety of Speilberger Inventory and the Adjustment Inventory, for school aged students. The school performance of the students was defined as the average score of their final exams of that year. The statistical method employed in the study was structural equation modeling. The results of the study indicated that the correlation matrix was meaningful for all the variables in the model. The analysis of the model showed that the proposed model fitted the data. The direct path from IQ to school performance and adjustment was positive and significant. Also, the direct path from adjustment to school performance was positive and significant. Furthermore, the direct path from emotional intelligence to school performance was negative and significant; from emotional intelligence to adjustment was positive and significant, and from emotional intelligence to test anxiety and school performance were negative but significant respectively. Similarly, the relationship of IQ to test anxiety was negative and significant. Also, the relationship of IQ to school performance was positive and significant. Finally, the mediating roles of adjustment and test anxiety were confirmed. The model indices were also indicated to fit the data. The results showed that the path between the intellectual intelligence and school performance was positive and significant. This result was expected because intellectual functioning is associated with solving problems and learning abilities in school. Also the results showed that the relationships of intellectual intelligence with adjustment and test anxiety were meaningful but in different directions (positive for adjustment and negative for test anxiety). The literature shows that students with higher IQ can adjust themselves better, and as they have higher intellectual abilities the remembering and retrieval of the school materials are easier for them. This may cause less test anxiety and more adjustment in school. The path between the emotional intelligence and school performance was negative but significant, indicating that the higher the emotional intelligence the lower the student’s school performance will be. This result was not congruent with previous studies. One reason could lay in the measurement of school performance which was grade point average and not a standard test. Another reason for this result could be the controversies around the construct 'emotional intelligence', as some researchers believe that it may not have linear relationship with school performance. It may be that some teachers in some cultures do not like students who are open in expressing their emotions or are assertive. There was also a positive relationship between the emotional intelligence and adjustment. This is clear because those who have higher emotional intelligence can express and control their emotions and understand other people's emotions. The results also indicated that the relationship between the emotional intelligence and test anxiety is negative. When emotional intelligence is high the individual can manage his/her emotions, has a good control and can perform under pressure, therefore the test anxiety may not be high. The path between the test anxiety and school performance was negative, indicating the higher the test anxiety the lower the school grade will be. Finally, congruent with other studies, the relation of adjustment and school performance was positive. It may be that the adjusted person has less psychological problems and could perform better in stressful situations. The mediating roles of adjustment and test anxiety were also confirmed. Different studies have indicated that intellectual intelligence, by increasing adjustment and decreasing test anxiety, can have positive effect on performance. The indirect path from emotional intelligence to school performance, through test anxiety and adjustment, showed that emotional intelligence can increase school performance indirectly.

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have become commonplace entities in all aspects of life. ICTs have become within a very short time, one of the basic building blocks of the modern society. Many countries now regard understanding ICT and mastering the basic skills and concepts of ICT as part of the core of education, alongside reading, writing and numeracy. Teachers use information and communication technologies in order to teach students the knowledge and skills needed for the future knowledge society. Their knowledge, skills and attitudes towards ICT in education have a significant influence on ICT adoption and implementation behaviors in classroom. Also teacher training models by the mediating role of their self confidence affect their self confidence in using ICT. Teachers in general agree that computers constitute a valuable tool and they are positive about students’ attainment of ICT knowledge and skills. In many cases, they perceive ICT as a new subject matter in education rather than a new way of teaching and interaction between learners and knowledge. It does not only provide access to knowledge but also allows for the development of this knowledge within the classroom. In general, teachers’ training, their backgrounds, the way they learn, the way they perceive their role as teachers and their self confidence are all factors which contribute to the manner in which they use ICT in teaching and learning processes. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between organizational features, teacher's knowledge, skill and attitude and their sense of self-confidence to apply ICT in teaching based on an explanatory model. Research Questions:1- Is there a significant relationship between organizational characteristics (supportive climate, teaching experiences and training) and teachers’ self-confidence to apply ICT in teaching?2- Is there a significant relationship between organizational characteristics (supportive climate, teaching experiences and training) and teachers’ knowledge, skill and attitude?3- Is there a significant relationship between organizational characteristics (supportive climate, teaching experiences and training) and teachers’ self-confidence to apply ICT in teaching by the mediatory role of their knowledge, skill and attitude? The population of the study was all the high school male and female teachers in the four Shiraz Educational Districts. By classified random Sampling, 325 teachers were selected and completed surveys for this study. The instrument used in this study was survey of factors affecting teachers’ teaching with ICT technology (SFA) (Papanastasiou & Angeli, 2008). Validity and reliability of the instruments were measured. The results showed high validity and reliability of all the instrument sub scales. Data was analyzed by SPSS16 and LISREL8.54 software. Using path analysis based on Baron & Kenny’s (1986) steps, in the current article theses steps were followed:Step 1: Facultie's flexibility (intuitional and rational) is correlated with student's development (academic average and intellectual development).Step 2: Facultie's flexibility (intuitional and rational) is correlated with student's active learning.Step 3: Student's active learning affects student's development (academic average and intellectual development).Step 4: To establish that student's active learning completely mediates the facultie's flexibility–student's development relationship, the effect of facultie's flexibility on student's development controlling for student's active learning should be zero. The effects in both steps 3 and 4 are estimated in the same equation. 1- The apprenticeship and school supportive climate had a positive and significant relationship with teachers’ sense of self-confidence to apply knowledge and skill of ICT in teaching. Teaching background had a negative and significant relationship to teachers’ sense of self-confidence to apply knowledge and skill of ICT in teaching.2- The apprenticeship and school supportive climate had a positive and significant relationship to teachers’ knowledge, skill and attitude to apply ICT in teaching. Teaching background had a negative and significant relationship to teachers’ software knowledge, skill and attitude to apply ICT in teaching. 3- Through teachers’ software knowledge, skill and attitude, the apprenticeship and school supportive climate, had a positive and significant relationship with teachers sense of self-confidence to apply ICT in teaching. 4- Through teachers’ software knowledge, skill and attitude, apprenticeship, had a positive and significant relationship with teachers’ sense of self-confidence to apply ICT in teaching. The field of education has been affected by ICTs, which have undoubtedly affected teaching, and learning. ICTs have the potential to accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills, and also to motivate and engage students. Rapid changes in technology will ensure that ICT will proliferate in the classroom. ICT will also require a modification of the role of the teacher, who in addition to classroom teaching will have other skills and responsibilities. There is a range of enablers that assist teachers when they are developing innovative practice in ICT-rich. These enablers are the teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitude toward ICT that affect their self confidence in applying the ICT in teaching.

During the last century, researchers and psychologists have mostly emphasized disappointment and unhappiness conditions of human being such as anxiety and depression rather than their positive strengths and potentialities. In recent years, especially since Martin Seligman has been appointed as the APA president, a gradual trend has appeared in researchers` attitudes toward the positive aspects of human strengths (Moltafet, Mazidi, & Sadati, 2010). An important construct in positive psychology is well-being. Definition of well-being is complex because there are many approaches to the definition of this construct, but in general optimal function of human is accepted as the definition of well- being. There are two general approaches to explain well being: one is called hedonic approach and the other eudaimonic approach. In hedonic approach emphasis is on the present positive affect and absent negative affect to measure well-being. In this approach well being equals happiness. But eudemonic perspective assesses how well people are living in relation to their true selves (Waterman, 1993). In other words, the hedonic approach defines well-being as happiness, interpreted as the occurrence of positive affect and the absence of negative one. In contrast, the concept of eudaimonia, generally defined as living a complete human life, or the realization of valued human potentials (Ryan & Deci, 2001) has been used in more varied ways, and assessments of eudaimonia have been multiple and not always well coordinated. Deci and Ryan (2008b) also distinguish between two types of well being. They believe that eudaimonic conceptions of well being focus on the content and the processes involved in living well, whereas hedonic conceptions of well-being focus on a specific outcome, namely the attainment of positive affect and an absence of pain. Well being that derives from eudaimonic approach is called psychological well-being. Based on previous research it could be mentioned that Psychological well-being examines the extent to which a person is thriving vis-à-vis the existential challenges of life (e.g., pursuing meaningful goals, growing and developing as a person, establishing quality ties to others). One person that is well known on research in psychological well being is Ryff. Ryff (1989), in an attempt to distill the full growth, development, and existential concepts mentioned above, proposed a multidimensional model of PWB that measures six psychological dimensions of challenged thriving. Ryff’s multidimensional model includes six categories, which represent different challenges the individual encounters as he or she strives to function positively. These six dimensions define wellness as including: positive evaluation of oneself and one’s past life (Self-Acceptance), a sense of continued growth and development as a person (Personal Growth), the belief that one’s life is purposeful and meaningful (Purpose in Life), the possession of quality relations with others (Positive Relations With Others), the capacity to manage effectively one’s life and surrounding world (Environmental Mastery), and a sense of self-determination (Autonomy). Findings of research have showed that environmental and self determination motivation is important to determine well-being. Deci and Ryan (2000) believed that contextual variables and autonomous motivation are very important to well-being. As can be seen in the above figure, the context that we are living in is an important variable. A major contextual factor that drives individual need satisfaction in different settings is autonomy support from the authority figures. Parents are one of the contextual factors that are very important to health. Parents can provide autonomy support, structure, and involvement. Autonomy support from parents refers to parents’ providing rationale, giving choices, and acknowledging children’s feelings during parenting (Baard et al., 2004). The researchers showed that family variables had effect on wellbeing. Also motivation can be related to well being. Although the previous studies have mainly confirmed the positive relationships of family variables and wellbeing, they did not clearly mention the mechanism of these relationships. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the perceptions of parents and psychological well-being by academic motivation as an intervening variable. Based on our research purpose, three research hypotheses were generated:1-There is a relationship between family variables and well-being. 2- There is a relationship between family variables and academic motivation. 3- Academic motivation has a mediation role between family variables and well-being. Research MethodsThe sample in this study comprised 875 adolescents from senior high schools (Grades 10–12). These students were selected by cluster sampling method. Their age ranged from 15 to 21 years. The participants responded to the following scales: psychological well-being scale, perception from parents, and motivational beliefs. These instruments showed appropriate reliability and validity. Path analysis was the major statistical operation run in the study. The results by path analysis technique showed that the relationship between perception of parents and psychological well-being is influenced by academic motivation. Perception of control from parents had negative direct and indirect effect on psychological well-being through academic and extrinsic motivation. Perception of autonomy support had positive direct and indirect effect on psychological well-being through academic and intrinsic motivation. In sum, the results showed that motivational beliefs could have a mediatory role in the relationship between perception from parents and well- being. To evaluate the model, multiple indexes of fitness were used which indicated that there was adequate fitness between the data and model. The main goal of this study was to investigate the relationship between family variables and wellbeing with the mediatory role of academic motivation. The results of the study supported our hypotheses. Path analysis results showed that academic motivation plays a mediatory role between the family variables and well-being.Combination of the variables in this model is, by itself, the most significant characteristic of this research. Therefore, our current finding could be regarded as one of the most important contributions of this study. The model applied in this study has an important implication for future studies, especially the ones on wellbeing and motivation. Our finding, that motivation plays a significant role in the relationship between family variables and wellbeing, has added to the illumination of the nature of this relationship. Also we realized that individuals’ wellbeing is, to some degree, affected by their academic motivation. An individual with an intrinsic motivation has more wellbeing than those with an extrinsic motivation. Therefore, it is recommended that the grounds for experiencing more intrinsic academic motivation should be laid for the individuals. We believe that this model is a proper model to explain the mechanism of the effects of family variables on wellbeing. The results of this study are limited to the population from which our research sample was selected. Therefore, generalization of our findings to other groups in Iran or other countries is not recommended.