نشریه مطالعات آموزش و یادگیری
سال چهارم شماره 2 (پیاپی 63، پاییز و زمستان 1391)

The increasing accessibility of e-learning environments within the educational world is an inevitable phenomenon in the digital age. This is a time for educators to re-evaluate the current pedagogies, and for scholars and researchers to think about instructional designs in terms of the current e-learning and e-teaching environments. The E-learning concept has been around for decades and is one of the most significant recent developments in the Information Systems (IS) industry (Wang, 2003). Sun et al, (2008) define e-learning as ‘‘...the use of telecommunication technology to deliver information for education and training”. There are a variety of technologies utilized in e-learning, i.e., internet, intranets, videos, interactive TV and CD-ROM. In addition, there are several approaches to e-learning including online learning or web-based instruction, computer-assisted instruction and virtual classrooms (Kala et al, 2010; Sorebo et al, 2009; Phobun & Vicheanpanya, 2010).Many universities nowadays, such as those in Iran, are starting to provide web-based courses that complement classroom-based courses. Online courses provide learners with a variety of benefits such as convenience, flexibility, and opportunities to work collaboratively and closely with teachers and other students from different schools or even across the world. Despite the widespread recognition of the value of electronic learning (e-learning) over the past decade, many users discontinue e-learning after initial acceptance of its usage (Lee, 2010). As the long-term success of information systems (IS) depends on continued usage rather than mere acceptance, understanding the factors that affect users’ intention to continue using e-learning system can not only help system developers, but also teachers and vendors design the best strategies to increase its usage. Previous research has suggested a variety of factors affecting user continuance toward the web-based learning system. This study developed an integrated model with relation among dimensions: Drawing on Deci and Ryan’s Self Determination Theory, information quality and usability were studied for their effect on e-learning continuum by the mediatory role of intrinsic motivation. Based on this model, the following questions were put forward: Q1: Are self-determination needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness) positively related to intrinsic motivation? Q2: Are information quality and perceived usability positively related to the user's satisfaction?Q3: Is intrinsic motivation positively related to the user's satisfaction? Q4: Is intrinsic motivation positively related to the user's continuance?Q5: Is satisfaction positively related to the user's continuance? The population of this study included undergraduate students of Hadith Sciences University in Mashhad. A total of 350 questionnaires were distributed to individuals who had at least taken one course offered by the e-learning service. Only 218 questionnaires were returned. The measures used in this study were mainly adapted from relevant prior studies but some modifications were made to the wording to make it suit the context of this research. All the items were measured using a seven-point Likert-type scale with anchors from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree’’. Validity of the whole scale was verified by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).Scales of perceived usability (α=0.90) and user's satisfaction (α=0.90) were utilized through the items derived from Chiu et al. (2005). Items for user's continuance (α= 0.95) and information quality (α= 0.96) were taken from Roca et al. (2006). Items for autonomy (α= 0.85), competence (α= 0.80) and relatedness (α= 0.89) and intrinsic motivation (α= 0.95) were adapted from Sorebo et al. (2009). The reliability of the measurement instruments was estimated through Cronbach's Alpha. The alpha values were 0.68 (user continuance), 0.63 (autonomy), 0.81 (competence), 0.59 (relatedness), 0.68 (intrinsic motivation), 0.83 (information quality), 0.59 (perceived usability) and 0.90 (satisfaction). Drawing on SDT, information quality and perceived usability, we proposed a model for online learning continuance. A partial correlation matrix (Table 1) was firstly generated to partial out possible confounding of demographic variables. Table 1 shows items, means, standard deviations and correlation coefficients for the eight constructs in the extended IS-continuance model. The purpose of this study was to test self-determination theory, information quality and usability in an online learning environment. The study indicated that self-determination needs, intrinsic motivation, information quality, perceived usability and satisfaction are determinants of user's continuance among the students in higher education. Overall, the results provided strong support for the hypotheses. The findings are consistent with prior studies such as (Sorebo et al., 2009; Chiu et al., 2005; Roca et al, 2006; Roca & Gagne, 2008). The results suggest that the research model provided good explanatory power of user's continuance. It is implied that these factors play important roles in shaping user's continuance, and thus IS researchers should consider post-usage factors when exploring user's continuance with the specific technology. In conclusion, continuance in the e-learning systems is very important for developers and administrators of these systems. Implications from these findings to e-learning system developers and implementers are further elaborated in higher education.

Introduction Human beings go through ups and downs of life full of challenges and opportunities. A great proportion of life's challenges is linked to adolescence among which one can refer to academic challenges (e.g., low grades, levels of stress, threatening of confidence due to performance, decrease in motivation and interaction, etc.). As one of these challenges, academic period is a period of life during which rapid cognitive and social changes occur (Spear1, 2000). Thus, researchers interested in education have paid attention to adaptation and compatibility with opportunities and challenges of life. Within different viewpoints, collections of capabilities and aptitudes which influence this kind of compatibility have been paid attention to. Academic buoyancy is among those capabilities and aptitudes which make individuals compatible against threats, impediments, difficulties, and pressures in the academic environment. Academic buoyancy reflects academic tolerance within the framework ofpositive psychological field. Academic buoyancy is defined as student's ability in successfully dealing with impediments and academic challenges which are considered as usual in academic life (Martin & Marsh, 2008). Also, academic buoyancy refers to a positive compatible response adaptive to different challenges and impediments which are experienced through the continuous and ongoing academic field (Putwain, Connors, Symes, & Douglas-Osborn, 2011). Academic buoyancy antecedents in different levels are psychological factors, schools and engagement factors in the education process, and family and peer factors (Martin & Marsh, 2008). Among family and peer factors, one can name family support and its communication patterns. Many experimental observations (such as Alva, 1991; McMillan & Reed, 1994; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Voydanoff & Donnelly, 1999 & Wayman, 2002) support the role of these factors in increasing compatibility, competence and success. Among the psychological factors, self-efficacy can be considered as one of the factors influencing academic buoyancy which was proposed by Bandura within social-cognitive theory (Basol, 2010). Bandura (2001) recognizes self efficacy as the most important factor determining activities we choose. From Bandura, Pastorelli, Barbaranelli & Caprara's (1999) viewpoint, self-efficacy is a multi-dimensional variable and should be evaluated within different fields. In this sense, they consider three main areas of academic self efficacy, social self-efficacy, and emotional self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy is related to one's feeling capable of managing learning activities, knowing educational subjects, and fulfilling academic objectives (Muris, 2001). Social self-efficacy refers to one's capacities in confronting social challenges, feeling of capability in one's relationships with peers, and the ability to manage incompatibility among individuals (Muris, 2001). Muris (2001) defines emotional self-efficacy as a perceived ability of overcoming negative emotions by a person. Self-efficacy as a personal variable has a significant role in one's encountering of life issues (Brown & Anivy, 2005; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) and can be an influential factor in academic and educational situations (Salami & Ogundokun, 2009). Accordingly, the present study was conducted to discover the effect of psychological and contextual factors (family communication patterns and self-efficacy) as the main elements on the degree of student's academic buoyancy. Research questionsThe present study aims at investigating the self-efficacy's mediatory role in the relation of family communication patterns with academic buoyancy. Therefore, the present study attempts to answer the following questions:- Is it possible to predict student's academic buoyancy based on family communication patterns? - Is it possible to predict student's self-efficacy according to family communication patterns?- Can self-efficacy have the mediatory role between family communication patterns as endogenous variable and academic buoyancy as exogenous variable?MethodThe study's design is a correlational one with family communication patterns as endogenous variable, self-efficacy as mediatory variable, and academic buoyancy as the final exogenous variable. Overall, 337 students (176 females and 161 males) of a high school located in Mehriz city participated in the study. These students were chosen through multi-stage random cluster sampling. In gathering information, three instruments were utilized: Revised Scale of Family Communication Patterns (Fitzpatrick & Ritchie, 1994), Self-Efficacy's Dimensions Questionnaire (Muris, 2001), and Academic Buoyancy Questionnaire (Hoseinchari & Dehghanizadeh, 1391). All the three instruments enjoyed appropriate reliability and validity. ResultsAnalysis of the data using path analysis and based on Baron and Kenny (1986) showed that the conversation dimension directly predicts academic buoyancy and self-efficacy dimensions and that self efficacy dimensions can play a mediatory role between the family communication patterns and student's academic buoyancy. Discussion In general, the findings of the study highlight the direct and indirect effect of family communication patterns on the mediatory role of self-efficacy. Not only self-efficacy has a direct effect on academic buoyancy, but it also acts as a mediatory variable between the conversation orientation and academic buoyancy. Effective relationship with parents leads to the creation of and increase in self-efficacy and with this increase, confidence is built within students. About the significance and influence of self efficacy beliefs, Bandura (2001) maintains that none of the individual's cognitive beliefs is as constructive as efficacy in managing individual's compatibility performance in dealing with difficulties and stressful conditions. Students with high self-esteem in their performance appear as energetic and believe that they can overcome difficulties and challenges. Such a belief in personal capabilities in confronting environmental stressful stimuli is accompanied by compatible performances of buoyancy.

IntroductionUnderstanding the cognitive and motivational processes and their mutual relationship is one of the important topics in educational psychology. In recent decades motivational theories are increasingly considered in educational fields. The relevant literature indicates that through considering both motivational and cognitive parameters, one could more objectively and realistically explain the academic achievement. There are three prominent theories in motivational literature: Social-Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986), Goal Orientation Theory (Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Nicholls, 1984) and Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield, 1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). Self-efficacy, as a key element of social cognitive theory, appears to be a significant variable in student's learning because it affects students’ motivation and learning (Pajares, 2006; Schunk, 2003). According to Expectancy-Value Theory, students’ beliefs in terms of the degree to which they believe that the academic task is worth pursuing (task value) is also one key component for understanding students’ achievement behaviors and academic outcomes. Goal orientation is related to the purpose of achievement behaviors. It is represented by different ways of approaching, engaging in, and responding to achievement type activities (Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Research has shown that the adoption of achievement goals is driven by differential antecedents and leads to differential patterns of cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences (Elliot, 1999; Schunk et al., 2008). Also, individuals’ self-efficacy and task value are posited to have direct influences on their achievement goals (Elliot, 1999; Wigfield, 1994). Therefore, in order to investigate such subtle relationships among these constructs, this study examined the relationship among self-efficacy, task value and cognitive strategies through the intermediation of goal orientations. Research questions1- Which cognitive strategies can be predicted by self-efficacy and task value?2- What is the impact of goal orientations on each of the cognitive strategies?3- Can all the kinds of goal orientation mediate between self-efficacy, task value and cognitive strategies?4- Which kinds of goal orientations are more dominant among the Iranian students? MethodIn order to assess the research variables, two instruments including Achievement Goal Questionnaire (Elliot & McGregor, 2001) and three subscales of self-efficacy, task value and cognitive strategies from motivational strategies Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich et al, 1991) were administered to a sample of 365 first year high school students (192 girls and 173 boys) in shiraz, who were selected via multistage cluster sampling method. The data were analyzed by path analysis.ResultsThe results of path analysis showed that self-efficacy and task value affected cognitive strategies both directly and indirectly by certain of goal orientations. Thus self-efficacy and task value predicted all the cognitive strategies positively through the intermediation of mastery approach goal orientation. There was no significant relationship between mastery avoidance goal and two exogenous variables and this goal predicted none of the cognitive strategies. Self-efficacy affected performance approach goal and this goal in turn predicted elaboration strategy positively. Performance avoidance goal was negatively predicted by self-efficacy and this goal predicted rehearsal strategy positively. Also predominant goal orientations within the students were mastery approach and performance approach goal orientations. DiscussionThe aim of this study was to investigate the role of goal orientation in mediating motivational beliefs (self-efficacy and task value) and cognitive strategies. The findings indicated that singly, mastery approach goal orientation could mediate between self-efficacy, task value and all kinds of cognitive strategies. Performance approach and performance avoidance goals could mediate between self-efficacy and some of the cognitive strategies but mastery avoidance didnt have any effect in this regard. Thus, self-efficacy and/or task value could be considered as antecedents of goal orientations that lead to use of various cognitive strategies. Also, the results indicated that each of the goal orientations has distinct pattern of cognitive consequences. Another finding was that the dominant goal orientations among the Iranian students were mastery and performance approach goal orientations. Overall, the results of the study were compatible with the previous research in other cultures.

IntroductionThe study of factors influencing student's mathematic performance has always been a basic issue in education. Despite the large number of studies conducted and heavy budgets spent, there are still huge numbers of students who experience failure in mathematics each year. Therefore, identifying factors affecting student's performance in this regard and determining the magnitude of these effects can be critically important in helping students improve their achievement in mathematics. Self-regulated learning strategies are among the factors influencing achievement. Self-regulated learning is defined as the capability of active participation in the learning process from the view point of cognition, metacognition, motivation and behavior. Self-regulated learners are equipped with cognitive and metacognitive knowledge and know how to direct their mental processes in the direction of mathematical performance. Moreover, studies of individual differences in skill acquisition suggest that mathematical learning should include strategy building as a learning style. Learning style can be defined as a set of cognitive, emotional, characteristic and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceive, interacts with and responds to the learning environment.The aim of the present study was to investigate the interactional effect of teaching the self-regulated learning strategies and cognitive styles on the mathematical problem solving of students in grade 3 of high school.Research questions Is there any interactional effect for the teaching of self-regulated learning strategies and cognitive styles on the mathematical problem solving of students in grade 3 of high school? MethodsThis research is an experimental study with an experimental and control group in a pre and post test research design. Data were collected from 111 students of grade 3 of high school. The cognitive and metacognitive concepts of self-regulated learning strategies were taught to the students of experimental group in sixteen sessions. Then, all the students took a post test which was different from the pretest. MeasuresLearning style Inventory: Kolb's Learning style Inventory was used to evaluate the individual's Learning style. Mathematic performance: The student's Mathematic performance was measured through a specially developed test including strategic and conceptual tasks.ResultsAfter teaching the cognitive and metacognitive concepts of self-regulated learning strategies, the results of experimental group were noticeably better than those of the controlled group. The performance of the students in the strategic level in comparison to the conceptual level was better. In addition, the analysis of the results showed the students’ better performance by teaching the cognitive and metacognitive self-regulated learning strategies along with the convergent and assimilated style. The effect of this interaction in conceptual level was not great, but in strategic level was great. DiscussionBased on the results of the study, teaching of the self-regulated learning strategies was the cause of a positive increase in mathematic performance. The findings are in line with Agran et al (2002); Artz & Armour-Thomas (1997); Chien (2002); Desoete et al (2001); Howard et al (2001); Mayer, (1998); Perels et al (2005); Schoenfeld, (1992); which conclude that instruction on the strategies of self-regulated learning has an effect on the individual's self-efficacy. Moreover, the findings are in line with Zimmerman, and Martinez-Pon's (1990) which found a relationship between self- efficacy and self- regulated learning. Presumably, using self–regulated learning strategies has firstly caused a boost in the judgment of their abilities in the field of educational activities. These beliefs have probably later entered activities in domains outside education and led to self- efficacy of students in various fields. Needless to say, the relationship between self-regulated learning and self- efficacy is a two-way one. Zimmerman, and Martinez-Pons (1990) believe that self-regulation in students is related to their perception of self-efficacy coming from good task completion. Moreover, according to Zimmerman (1986), efficient self-regulation while doing homework is related to the suitable feeling of self-efficacy in learning. The students compare their actions and goals while working on assignments. Self–assessment of their progress increases their self-efficacy and motivates them for higher achievement. Considering the above-mentioned points, the results of this research indicate that self- regulated learning strategies can enhance the mathematical performance of students. Moreover, the results were indicative of the students’ better performance through teaching the cognitive and metacognitive self-regulated learning strategies along with the convergent and assimilated style. The effect of this interaction in conceptual level was not great, but in strategic level was great. The findings are in line with Carmo et al. (2006) who concluded that the fastest learners are those who develop self-regulated learning strategies for concept formation. Strategic choices and self-regulated learning strategies are also important in research in mathematics education. Thus, a model of mathematical learning should include strategy building as a learning style. The learning model most applicable to learning mathematics is Kolb's Model of Experiential Learning or Kolb's model. In this model, a student's learning style is determined by two factors: whether the student prefers the concrete to the abstract, and whether the student prefers active experimentation to reflective observation. These preferences result in a classification scheme with four learning styles.

Introduction Academic achievement is one of the most important indicators for the success of educational systems. So, the study of factors related to student's achievement has become the focus of attention among educational psychologists. Some of these psychologists (e.g. Cho, 2010) point out that the intellectual ability is not the only factor necessary for one's academic achievement. Instead, they argue that success is the result of factors such as metacognitive skills and self-efficacy beliefs as well as intellectual ability. Metacognition was introduced by Flavell (1981) and defined as any knowledge of and activity about one's own cognition and also the regulation of cognition. Schraw and Dennison (1994) proposed that metacognitve awareness construct includes two dimensions of the knowledge of cognition and the regulation of cognition. Knowledge of cognition includes three different kinds of metacognitive awareness: declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge. The regulation of cognition includes planning, information management strategies, comprehension monitoring, debugging strategies, and evaluation of learning processes. Self-efficacy was introduced by Bandura (1997) and defined as our belief in our ability to succeed in specific situations. Bandura (1997) has suggested that self-efficacy can have an impact on everything from psychological states to behaviors and motivation. Zimmerman (1990) found the effect of self-efficacy beliefs on the self-regulated processes and academic achievement. A great deal is known about the role of each of these factors in the academic achievement separately. However, educators know little about the contribution of each of them in predicting achievement. So, the purpose of this study was to investigate the role of metacognition, self-efficacy and intelligence in the academic achievement of high school students.Research Questions1- Among the variables of IQ, metacognition and self-efficacy, which one is the best predictor of academic achievement of the first grade high school students?2- Which components of metacognition have more contribution in predicting academic achievement of the first grade high school students?Method ParticipantsThe participants of the study included 298 students (123 females and 175 males) from the high schools of Dena in Kohgiluyeh -Boyerahmad Province selected through random cluster sampling.InstrumentsMetacognitive Awareness Inventory Scale (Schraw & Dennison, 1994) was used to assess metacognitive awareness of students. It's a 52 item questionnaire that consists of two components: metacognitive knowledge and the regulation of knowledge. It is based on a five-point Likert type scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Self-efficacy Questionnaire (Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990) was applied as a measure of ability beliefs. It is a scale of nine items based on a five-point Likert type scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Raven Intelligence Test (1938) was used to assess intelligence. Moreover, the final math and humanities exam scores were used to measure academic achievement. The reliability and validity of the questionnaires were also found to be satisfactory. ResultsThe results of multiple regression analysis revealed:1- Intelligence was the most powerful predictor of academic achievement (β = 0.51). Self-efficacy was the second (β = 0.16) and metacognition was the third (β = 0.11). 2- Among the metacognitive components, conditional knowledge (β = 0.19) and information management strategies (β = 0.23) significantly predicted academic achievement. The other components had no significant role in this regard.ConclusionThe result concerning the superiority of intelligence over metacognition and self-efficacy in predicting academic achievement is consistent with some previous findings and shows that in the familiar and repetitive tasks IQ is more important than metacognition. Moreover, this study indicated that the students who are equipped with conditional knowledge are more successful. They know how to learn better and when to use a strategy. Also, good students are those who use more information management strategies. These results may mean that students can be more successful if they are taught conditional knowledge and information management strategies. Among the limitations of the present study was the use of non-standardized tests for assessing academic achievement. It is suggested that future research use standardized test scores. Investigating the role of metacognition and self-efficacy as mediators for the relationship between IQ and academic achievement is suggested for future studies. Studying the casual role of metacognitive strategies in achievement is also another line of research.

IntroductionIn recent years mathematics has been considered an important issue that affects everybody's life, as it is an essential aspect of all the areas of daily life. Although high achievement in mathematics can be the best predictor of success in economic situations, for many students mathematics is accompanied with the memories of trial and error, frustration, and fear of incorrect responses to math questions. Some studies have indicated that certain instructional strategies can create more anxiety in students. Students suffering from such an anxiety believe that their anxiety comes from their math teachers, math misconception and their weaknesses in math assignments. The traditional class with its three specific characteristic; that is, the imposing power of the teacher, public exposure and time limitation, is the main factor of low achievement, high anxiety and negative attitudes towards mathematics. TIMSS results have showed that Iranian students are in the lowest grade of math. New perspectives in math teaching put emphasis on cooperative learning, problem solving, exploring, action, self-instruction and self-assessment. Peer-tutoring and cognitive self-instruction methods are two constructivist perspectives with a background of theories like role-taking and self-regulation learning that enable the students to manage their learning, cooperate with others, reinforce their self-control and have self-reflection. Children actively construct their own solutions to mathematical problems. Self-instruction can be defined as the ability of an individual to cognitively plan, organize, direct, reinforce, and evaluate one's own independent learning without a teacher's prompting. There are three powerful influences behind self-instruction: the learning and modeling of materials, the ability of verbalization and self-regulation (metacognition). Peer-Tutoring is also a system of instruction in which learners help each other and learn (themselves) by teaching; a peer tutor is anyone who is of a similar status as the person being tutored.These factors may lead to high achievement in math and modify the student's attitudes towards mathematics. Finally, there is mounting research evidence to suggest that low-achieving students may receive moderate benefits from peer tutoring and cognitive self-instruction approaches. So, the purpose of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of Cognitive Self- Instruction and Peer Tutoring as new math instructional methods on math achievement, math anxiety and attitudes towards math in the fifth grade female students.Research Questions This study put forward the following questions:1. Do peer-tutoring and cognitive self-instruction have any impact on math achievement?2. Do peer-tutoring and cognitive self-instruction have any impact on math anxiety?3. Do peer-tutoring and cognitive self-instruction have any impact on aattitudes towards math?MethodsThe research design was quasi-experimental with pre-posttest format. The participants were three intact classes including 54 fifth grade female students (age = 11) that were selected through accessible sampling and were randomly placed in one control and two experimental groups. For data collection several instruments were used: the Mathematics Anxiety Scale for Children, Chiu and Henry (MASC, 1990)(including 22 items with four subscales (learning math anxiety, math problem solving anxiety, math teacher anxiety and math assessment anxiety) with the reliability indices of 0.95 and 0.95 (in pre and post-test); Aiken Attitudes Towards Mathematics Scale (AATM, 1970) including 23 items with four subscales of enjoying, motivation, caring and fear of math and with the reliability indices of 0.96 and 0.83 (in pre and post-test), and Math Achievement Test including 15 items with the content validity being verified by the fifth grade teachers. First MASC, AATM and math achievement test in pre-test were used. Then two treatments consisting of peer-tutoring and cognitive self-instruction were employed in two experimental groups during ten sessions of 45 minutes. Instructional methods were explained in a teaching package consisting of the purpose, procedure and quality of teaching as well as some examples. No treatment was used in the control group. After treatment, MASC, AATM and math achievement test were used as post-tests. The collected data was analysed through Covariance analysis and Bonferroni Post Hoc test in SPSS-16.ResultsThe results of ANCOVA and Bonferroni Post Hoc test showed that there was no significance difference between the cognitive self-instructional method and peer-tutoring method in terms of mathematical achievement. Similarly, there was no significance difference between the cognitive self- instructional method and peer-tutoring method in the attitudes towards math. However, there was a significance difference between the cognitive self-instructional method and peer-tutoring method in math anxiety. Finally, both the cognitive self-instructional group and peer-tutoring group in comparison to the control group had higher mathematical achievement, lower math anxiety and better attitudes towards math.Discussion and ConclusionThis study was conducted with the goal of comparing the effectiveness of Cognitive Self- Instruction and Peer Tutoring as new math instructional methods on math achievement, math anxiety and attitudes towards math. It can be concluded from the study that Cognitive Self- Instructional Method significantly decreases math anxiety and improves math attitudes but is not significantly effective on math achievement. Also, it can be mentioned that peer tutoring improves the attitude of students towards math. The limitations of this research were: multiplicity of teachers and lack of control of their attitudes toward math. Hence, it is suggested that future studies take such issues into account. Because the elementary math is basic to the development of knowledge of math, new math instructional methods that reinforce cooperative learning, cause positive attitudes towards math and lead to achieving high grades in international evaluations, are necessary. As such, more attention should be paid to strategies of math instruction and to other sources of high achievement in mathematics. Instruction should not be based on extreme positions, that students learn solely by internalizing what a teacher or book says or solely by inventing mathematics on their own.