نشریه قرآن پژوهی خاورشناسان (قرآن و مستشرقان)
سال دوازدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 23، پاییز و زمستان 1396)

As followers of one of the two main branches of Islam, the Shīʿa have a history that dates back to the advent of Islam and in the past centuries, they have contributed a very valuable heritage and have preserved important parts of this ancient heritage in their sources and works. Part of this heritage can be evinced from their invention of various sciences and their role in the advancement of several sciences. Theology (kalām) is
considered one of the most important Islamic sciences, and the Shīʿa most certainly played a significant role in its development. Many scholars have attempted to describe this role and in this article, we have attempted to collect the views of some Orientalists in this regard. We have sought to answer the question of the role played by the Shīʿa in the formation and development of Islamic theology from the viewpoint of the authors of the second edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam. The findings of our research indicate that Orientalists also believed that Shīʿa scholars have influenced the development of theology in several ways. One of the most important ways they did this was by presenting new subjects, issues, elucidations and theories in this science. From the viewpoint of the Orientalists, the Shīʿas were able to cultivate the science of Islamic theology by formulating new issues and presenting novel explanations in order to explicate their specific beliefs. In the beliefs they held in common with the Sunnīs, such as
monotheism, divine justice, faith etc., they presented distinct expositions and interpretations, and in those beliefs that were specific to their creed, such as Imamate and matters related to it, they added original contributions to the science of kalām. These specific issues can be regarded as the main distinction of Shīʿa in the science of theology, and other beliefs such as taqiyya, bada, rajʿah etc. are also deemed to be influenced in one way or another by the Shīʿa belief in the Imamate.

Writing encyclopedias on the Qurʾān has a long history and Oliver Leaman’s Quran: An Encyclopedia is the second encyclopedia written by Orientalists about the Holy Qurʾān. This work was edited by Professor Leaman and published in the United States in 2005 as a single volume. Insofar as this encyclopedia is a novel attempt to present the teachings of the Qurʾān to readers who have no knowledge about the holy scripture of
the Muslims, it is praiseworthy> however, in other ways, such as: adhering to the common mindset and assumptions of Orientalists as well as a number of serious mistakes, it has shortcomings. Oliver Leaman’s Encyclopedia mentions only two Shīʿa scholars (Shaykh Mufīd and Ayatollah Khūʿī) in his entries> however, the reason for selecting only
these two individuals has not been made clear by him. This research is descriptive-analytic and studies the role of these two Shīʿa scholars in the development of religious sciences according to this encyclopedia before compensating for the deficiencies found therein.

The history of the Qurʾān and subjects related to it are considered some of the important issues in the field of Islamic studies that have always been the a point of focus for Muslim and non-Muslim scholars. It is evident that the extensive studies of Orientalists, who relied on their peculiar preconceptions, sought to ignore the Shīʿa works on this important subject. Aside from Christian and Jewish sources, Orientalists have always referred to Sunnī sources that have, due to preexisting assumptions biases, led to
erroneous conclusions in issues pertaining to the history of the Qurʾān. Most Orientalists base their studies on the history of the Qurʾān on Nöldeke’s work on the history of the Qurʾān. In this article, we tried to study the views of Orientalists on the role of the Shīʿa in the history of the Qurʾān using a descriptive-analytical method.

A large number of Orientalists have attempted to deny that the Qurʾān was divinely revealed and in so doing, raised doubts about this. For example, these Orientalists have proposed the theory of the ‘plagiarizing of the Qurʾān from the Bible’. Through this, they sought to deny the authenticity of the text and the originality of the content of the Qurʾān, and to demonstrate that in many instances, it was a mere reflection of the
scriptures of Judaism and Christianity. The questions that arise are: what exactly is the is the theory of plagiary? What proofs have been presented by Shīʿa scholars in order to refute this doubt and answer it? The present study aims to examine this doubt, and explore the arguments and proofs against it advanced by Shīʿa scholars. Due to the existence of some commonalities in the teachings of the Qurʾān and the Bible, such as some of the beliefs, legal injunctions, and stories of Prophets, Orientalists have made the claim that the Qurʾān has taken from the Bible> however, they have not considered the common origin of all the divine revelations and the essential differences between some of the themes of the Qurʾān and the Bible, as well as the contradictions within the Bible which has resulted from its distortion. They have also overlooked the fact that, unlike the
Bible, there is no contradiction between the Qurʾān and modern science and that the Qurʾān is able to meet the needs of human beings at any time and place. These proofs show that none of the arguments for the hypothetical claims made by these individuals can substantiate their claim. The method of study employed in this paper is descriptive-analytic documentary research and in order to elucidate the view that is presented,
reference has been made to a variety of books and articles. In the end, the authors’ analysis is presented.

Goldziher, one of the renown early Orientalist scholars, in the first part of his famous work Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, has embarked on a discussion about the subject of the infallibility of the Noble Prophet (s). In his article on “Mohammad and Islam,” he cites, for some reason, the disqualification of the Prophet (s) as “an exemplary role model” and then denies his infallibility based on this claim. Although Muslim scholars have, in response to his view, offered many succinct answers, some of his claims remain unanswered. Therefore, the present study seeks to adopt an analytical-critical approach in analyzing the claims made by Goldziher in this regard, and to re-examine the sources and documents from within the religious tradition that he quotes, looking at each one
separately and evaluating each of them meticulously. The findings of our research indicate Goldziher’s lack of required proficiency and mastery of Islamic sources, including [Qur’anic] verses and narrations, which have resulted in his incomplete and fallacious understanding of the same.

The present paper reviews and critiques the article on “shafaʿa” in Oliver Leaman’s Encyclopedia of the Qurʾān authored by Asma Afsaruddin, professor at the University of Notre-Dame in the United States. Afsaruddin has mentioned verses related to “shafaʿa” as well as the views of Muslims on this issue, however, based on the beliefs of
Wahhabism, she rejects the idea of intercession and visitation [of the graves]. From the viewpoint of the Qurʾān, non-independent intercession that is sanctioned by divine permission is something that is firmly established. Additionally, intercession is a process of divine mercy and encompasses those who have attained the pleasure of God whereas the
intercession of idols, which the polytheists believed in, is rejected. Intercession based on idolatry has fundamental differences with the aforementioned intercession in that the latter is not a form of independent intercession, growth and advancement of the individual results from the intercession, the impermissibility of worshipping the intercessors, the fact that the intercessors are alive and conscious, the conditionality of
intercession and the lack of authority of the intercessors with regards to the abasement or exaltation, victory or failure [of those for whom they intercede]. Therefore, considering these two forms of intercession as equivalent is a discrepant analogy (qiyās maʿal-fāriq). Visitation of the graves of saints (awliyāʾ) and seeking recourse through them (tawassul) is also in accordance with the text of the Holy Qurʾān and the traditions [of the infallibles]> and the beliefs of the aberrant Wahhabi sect are contrary to the teachings of Islam.