پژوهش نامه تاریخ اسلام
سال چهارم شماره 14 (تابستان 1393)

In a religious crisis trapping the Fatimid caliphate, the project of worships (inward and outward forms of worship) was a strategy for dissolving the intellectual and cultural problems of the Fatimid caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (411-386 BC). The emergence of Ismaili extremists, the creation of chasm between court missionaries, and the rise of intellectual crisis in the Ismaili community were insoluble except through strengthening the intellectual foundations of the Fatimid Imams and missionaries. Hamid al din-Kirmani, the theoretician of Fatimid court, through proposing the idea of inward and outward worships succeeded in solidifying the Ismaili community intellectually and reviving the peace, religious authority, and legitimacy of Imam-caliph. This article, through adopting a descriptive-analytic method, aims at understanding the conceptual meaning of the term “worships” and exploring the process of application of this theory for solving the crisis and increasing the power of the Fatimid Imam. The findings of the study indicate the alignment of inward and outward worships and their interdependence. The initial religious ideology of Ismaili is not compatible with leaving out outward observance, and it never approves of seceding of the Fatimid Imam from imamate state and claiming godhood.

Almohad movement started with Ibn Tumart’s activities in North Africa, and attracted a large number of followers from Maṣmuda tribes of Atlas Mountains. They were obedient to Mahdi and were guided by Ibn Tumart and were supposed to become true Muslims by End time. Although the remote Berber tribes already had a role in historical events of the Islamic world, they could never reign. Before long, they became rulers of the western Mediterranean and altered the course of history. The main purpose of this research is to study the way this general transformation occurred in North Africa, and the role played by tribes and tribal traditions in the formation of Almohad movement. A survey on sources shows that the structure of Berber tribal society not only was not an impediment to the establishment of Almohad government, but also acted like its driving force. Ibn Tumart and his successors did not destroy tribal society, but created a new structure of the movement. They adapted existing tribal customs and took advantage of what were deeply rooted in Berber experiences and traditions. The incorporation and cooperation of Berber tribes was one of the main reasons for formation of Almohad Empire and North African governments that under their dominance political systems were formed.

Despite being a semi-arid region in the Middle East, Khuzistan holds an outstanding geographical position in the Iranian plateau. The flow of important rivers in this region had long attracted the attention of governments to this region from ancient periods until the Islamic era. This particular attention led to major construction policies in the region aimed at controlling the stream of the rivers, effectively changing their routes, and establishing and maintaining enormous hydraulic constructions. These policies, directed by royal funding and governmental control, were very useful for the reconstructive development of Khuzistan. The most prominent example was manifested in the development of its agricultural economy. Through studying the geographical grounds of this phenomenon and the process of constructing hydraulic constructions, the present study will examine and also compare the enormous hydraulic policies during Sassanid and Islamic periods.

Before the advent of Islam, the Arab society in the Arabian Peninsula was administered according to the principles of Jahiliyya (ignorance). The rise of Islam in the region led to transformation of these principles. Islam confirmed some of these principles and rejected some others. Ethnocentrism and tribalism both were present before the rise of Islam, which were rigorously objected to by Islam. The Prophet (PBUH) fought with these features in different ways; however, they were so rooted and persistent that they reappeared after him. After the Prophet (PBUH) and the first caliphs, the Umayyads took control of the Muslim community and the Umayyad rulers ruled the Muslim territory for 91 years. During their extended reign, ethnocentrism and tribalism affected the Muslim society again. This study shows how ethnocentrism and tribalism manifested themselves in this historical era. Based on the historical findings, all the Umayyad rulers were from the Umayyad dynasty and descended from Sufyan and Marwan tribes. Moreover, the governors and mayors, war commanders, judges, and community imams were mostly Arab and particularly from Umayyad family and Quraish tribe. The rulers treated non-Arabs inappropriately. Arabs were considered to be superior to non-Arabs, and non-Arabs were deprived of human rights. This study has adopted a descriptive-analytic method.

During the years that eventually led to the First World War, the tribes of Sistan and Baluchistan, as a result of advertisements and undertakings of the Allies and the Axis, started advocating them. The attempts made by the German and Iranian liberal leaders and the activities of Democrat party in Kerman influenced the people of Sistan and Baluchistan. Although these two regions had already been influenced by anti-English movements of the subcontinent, the Ottoman and Indian uprisings against the dominance of the foreigners in Iran were not ineffective. The common religion of Iranians and Ottomans made them involved in supporting Ottomans. The division of Iran based on 1907 contract, the Westerners’ fight with Islam and the idea of unity in the Islamic world provoked Iranians to take part in the battle. The First World War caused some reactions on the part of Sunni and Shiite intellectuals. Both sects issued holy war fatwas; based on which, all the Muslims were required to take part in the holy war. Both the Shia and Sunni Muslims of Sistan, following the holy war fatwas issued by their own leaders, began fighting with the Englishmen. The holy war announcements were published and distributed in these regions and they provoked a storm of protest by the Sunni and Shiite residents. Englishmen and some local governors and their followers worked for overtaking such announcements. The anti-English passion of the south-easterners, invigorated by religious intellectuals, indicates that the holy war with the foreigners had turned into a national-religious movement in which individuals, regardless of their religion and ethnicity, displayed resistance against enemies

Governor Banu Merdas succeeded in establishing Banu Merdas government in Aleppo upon the weakening of Hamdanids government and power absence in this city in the early fifth century (414-472 AH). From strategic and military viewpoints, Aleppo had prominent status for Fatimids, Byzantium, and the Seljuk in the fifth century. Based on research findings, governors of Banu Merdas, despite repeated attacks of the Fatimids, could keep their power in Aleppo through adopting tactful policies. However, upon the entrance of Turkmen to Levant, the first Seljuk dynasty by capturing the city could nullify the efforts of Byzantium for pervading the northern region of Levant, on the one hand, and could put pressure on Fatimids, on the other hand. As a result of such attempts by the Seljuk, Banu Merdas government gradually declined and was driven to extinction. This study, through applying library method and original sources, attempts to investigate the political relations and encounters of this government with Fatimids and the Seljuk.