پژوهشنامه خراسان بزرگ
پیاپی 27 (تابستان 1396)

One of the important problems about understanding the Bactria Margiana Archaeological Complex is, recognition of expansion geographical area or definition of the boundaries of this culture. In this context, examining the influence of this culture in the western regions (Khorasan and Gorgan plain) has many importance. Excavations and archeological studies in the last decade led to identification of settlements and associated cemeteries with BMAC in the North Khorasan. So, today Gorgan plain (Golestan province), known as the western neighbor of BMAC. In order to understand the relations between this two regions and study of the existence possibility of settlements of this culture and its spread and expansion in the Golestan Province, this article examines the commercial and cultural communication, and the interplay between Gorgan and BMAC. In addition, investigate the commercial and cultural relationships between BMAC and Gorgan plain helps to define and delineate the western boundaries of BMAC.

One of the important issues in the study of the history of Iranian cities is the study of cities development and its causes in each historical period. One of these periods is the early centuries after the arrival of Islam into Iran, including in the great Khorasan. During this period, although religiously embraced Islam, Iran displayed a different image in the creation of urban culture due to its long history of urbanization. During this period, most of the cities in Khorasan were developed due to the expansion of old cities and major changes in their texture. The expansion of cities was influenced by several factors that affected their expansion in uneven proportions. The most important of these are: Geographical, natural and climatic factor: It includes the issue like existence of water, moderation of region and the good weather, the existence of suitable agricultural land, the proximity to pasture and the possibility of providing wooden products. Security - defense factor: It includes the creation of border cities, the construction of tower and fortification, and enclosing towns by nested fences, the use of natural barriers to protect the cities’ security, strengthening the military capabilities of cities and the use of warfare tools, and rebuilding and consolidating old cities. Economy - trade factor: It includes increased production jobs, the creation of permanent markets in cities, the significance of neighborhoods in the external cities, placing cities on the trade roads and the prosperity of trade with other regions. Governmental and administrative factor: Establishing the centrality of government in a city has always attracted population

As the advocates of the Abbasid movement prepared themselves in Khurasan for an overt struggle against umayyade government, Ibrahim Abbasi gave Abu Muslim his final recommendations, and urgently requested him to exert them in the chaotic political climate of his mission zone in order to change everything in favor of Abbasid dynasty. It is obvious that every text can make sense in a particular context and may also bear a particular purpose but what looks prominent in the recommendations of Abbasid Imam to Abu Muslim at first glance is the overt contradictions between some propositions as well as lack of logical and semantic coherence between them. This explicit contradiction, on the one hand, makes Abu Muslim treat Yemeni tribes leniently and approach them in a friendly manner, and dictates him, on the other hand, to eradicate any Arab-speaking person in Khurasan. The central question that motivated this paper is: How this contradiction evolved through time and how it can be fixed or eliminated? The findings of the current study, which are based on the content analysis of the Abbasid Imam’s recommendations, indicate that this contradiction could be the result of “spoonerism” in the syntactic structure of “insānan muriban”, which might have happened during the duplication process. It is worth mentioning that this structure is currently seen as “lisānan Arabiyyan” in the historical texts. It is worthy nothing that the correction and restoration of this contradiction to its original state can help eliminate this problem to a great extant. This will also give logical as well as semantic consistency to the propositions written in the Imam’s recommendations.

The Ismailian sector is known as a part of Shiism which later gained power as the Khalifs of Fatemi. In the midst of the 4th century of the lunar calendar, Hassan Sabbah who occupied Alamoot Castle as his foundation was the pioneer of the Ismailian movement in Iran. As he got stronger in the northern part of Iran, he selected Qohestan as his second base. Castles were rapidly taken up and escalated in Qohestan. They were so powerful there the Seljuks could never defeat that after their several attacks to put an end to the Ismailis but Ismailis did always win. The Ismailis' great power was based on their defense strategy that was fully dependent on the castles. The castles in Qohestan were steadily constructed observing all aspects of the important defensive points. This research is objectively considered as fundamental studies and is mainly known as historic, descriptive analysis. This research is based on utilizing written historic sources, and implemental studies and archeological documentary known as the ways of collecting information. The Ismailis did their best to provide themselves with the different indicators of the passive defense because of the shortage of the military troops to protect themselves. according to the consequences resulting from the castle of Qayen mount, which was one of the most significant strategic places of the Ismailis the barricades could never be defeated or even accessible considering the ammunition used at the time. The castle was available just to the one side of the mount. The Important points inside the castle were precisely designed and fabricated in the inaccessible areas. The high mount and walls prevented the invaders and archers from having access to the areas inside. The strategic towers were fabricated in the important parts of the castle that could be easily reached by the Ismailis. The ruling court and the homes of the commanders were deployed at the last defensive front. The warehouses were separately constructed for each surrounding. The significant parts of the castle were hidden based on the topography of the mount. The castle was located on the best part of the plain to have proper views to the main roads for the dwellers. The wall and towers were founded based on a high resistance and steadiness. The Ismailian sector is known as a part of Shiism which later gained power as the Khalifs of Fatemi. In the midst of the 4th century of the lunar calendar, Hassan Sabbah who occupied Alamoot Castle as his foundation was the pioneer of the Ismailian movement in Iran. As he got stronger in the northern part of Iran, he selected Qohestan as his second base. The Ismailis did their best to provide themselves with the different indicators of the passive defense because of the shortage of the military troops to protect themselves. according to the consequences resulting from the castle of Qayen mount, which was one of the most significant strategic places of the Ismailis the barricades could never be defeated or even accessible considering the ammunition used at the time. The castle was available just to the one side of the mount.

With the onset of Timur attacks in different parts of the country as well as domestic and succession wars PrincesTimurese in the next sections, In relative terms some of Iran's most important cities and villages were destroyed, But the Khorasan province was built by some Timur tribes, due to the fact that the Timurese center was located, and the prosperity of most of the towns of this region was provided. Timur's successors, building public buildings and creating ways to improve trade and security, traveled routes and contacted other governments, and were able to compensate for some of the previous failures. This research seeks to answer this question, what was the reason for the rapid growth of Mashhad during the Timurid period? In response to the hypothesis of the research, it is based on the fact that the rapid growth of Mashhad during the Timurid period was due to the attention of the Shiites to the shrine of Imam Reza (AS) and the increase of pilgrims and the special attention of the rulers of Timurid to the important and historic place of this region. This research is arranged using the historical research method and is trying to present the perspective of this development process and the attention of the Timurid rulers to the city of Mashhad on the basis of historical documentation. The results of this research indicate that during the Timurid period, the city of Mashhad, economic growth and, consequently, urban development has been expanded, and this depends largely on the development of security and communication with distant and close governments and support The emirates of Timurid have been associated with their special attention to the establishment of large economic and social structures and magnificent works.

The present paper deals with the status of Khorasan and Transoxiana in the Timurid era, which is one of the elements of the economy of the Timurid. In this paper, based on the data in the sources and with a descriptive-analytical approach, the condition of industries such as textiles, carpets, pottery, carving and metalworking in the region, has been investigated from the advent of Tamerlane to the end of the rule of Sultan Hussein Bayqara. The paper addresses the fundamental question of how the policies of Tamerlane and his successors have influenced the state of the industry and, consequently, the production of each of the industries in Khorasan and Transoxiana. In this paper, it has been shown that attention to the category of industry in the view of Timurid Rulers, the presence of the region of minerals rich in metals and stones, the existence of artisan and artisan population in these areas, as well as the growth of several major cities in these regions, a set of Factors that have led to the industrial boom in Khorasan and Transoxiana. The industries in these areas, based on these factors, and the exposure to the economic policies of the Timurid Rulers, had a dynamic situation. Thus, with relative flourishing in the components of the regional industry in the Timurid period, we face

One of the neglected topics in contemporary research is the effect of separation of Herat by the Paris Peace Treaty (1237AH/ 1857AD) on the economic life of Khorasan during the following three decades. This descriptive-analytical research was conducted to determine the economic topics affected by this issue and the benefits of this topic in the lives of people of Khorasan. Despite the excessive resources in this field and application of a more detailed overview of the topic with an analytical-adaptive approach, the most important effect was introduced as the obstruction of the trade route from East to West and vice versa, which led to the depriving of the cities of Khorasan from the benefits of commercial transactions. In addition, decreased prosperity of caravanserais and relevant job opportunities, changes in the use of agricultural land for opium cultivation and welcoming the trade of this product, and finally, promotion of Russian goods and increased price of products are among the other topics that affected the economic life of Khorasan during the period of 1273-1313AH/ 1857-1934AD. Meanwhile, the role of policy-making by England in line with benefits, such as creating a safe place for India and obtaining commercial revenues due to the blockage of the Herat crossing and attention to the Persian Gulf, is of great importance.