پژوهشنامه نقد ادبی و بلاغت
سال هفتم شماره 1 (پیاپی 13، بهار و تابستان 1397)

The occurrence of any changes in language, as one of the constituents of meaning in the text, leads to the creation of a new style and meaning. Metalinguistic function of language is one of its formal and semantic techniques. In meta-language, the text is written according to the language itself, thus the objectivity and materiality of the language are emphasized and some changes occur in its semantic field. The meta-language finds a higher significance in educational texts intended to induce a particular meaning. According to this linguistic arrangement, it has been tried in present paper to investigate the capacities, examples and formal functions of meta-language in Saadi Shirazi's masterwork, Gulistan, through a descriptive-analytic method based on the formalistic approach. The results show that the synonymous lexical and sentence substitution, the combination of poetry and prose, dialogue, allegory etc. are the most important examples of Meta-language in Gulistan, and, aesthetic functions, intertextuality, authority and monologue, and meaning consolidation are the most significant results of this technique

The “Heritage” poem in the book of the Ending of Shahnameh has been very popular since its publication, its reprinting in various books and websites being a proof to such a popularity. The interpretations and comments written on it are very limited in number, however. What has been written is the superficial and often-misunderstood interpretations of the popular verses in the first half of the poem. Regarding the second half of the poem, the rest of the verses have been left uninterpreted, indicating the inaccessibility and ambiguity in some parts of the poem. Therefore, in this poem, a contradictory duality (simultaneous attraction and repulsion) is made that is noteworthy. This paper seeks to show in an analytical-descriptive manner that the reading approach to this piece has been social in the past six decades, using the possibilities of aesthetics of reception theory. What causes inaccessibility and misunderstanding of this piece is an unpolished and unfamiliar cipher. Interpreting these codes would untie the knots of the poem and would give the readers a new insight presented in this study.

The school of humanism is one of the three major branches of psychology have been introduced in twentieth century. Abraham Maslow, the most famous character of the school, tried to study the best human specimens, unlike the scholars of other schools. He emphasized on positive and human-based behaviors. Maslow identifies the root of human behavior in his needs and considers it a five-step hierarchy includes physiological needs, safety, love and belonging, respect and self-actualization. His special attention to self-actualization has led to the emergence of a theory with the same name. Self-actualization is the manifestation of Human-self at its possible highest level, as he believes. "A better understanding of reality and establishing an easier communication with it" are among numerous component Maslow mentions for such people. The component has been reviewed in Naser Khosrow's thinking and life, in present paper, through a descriptive-analytic method; because he is known as a realist figure in the field of Persian literature, and man stands in a special place and has a central role in his intellectual structure. The most important features of "reality perception" in Naser Khosrow's life and thought that are consistent with Maslow’s theory are: “a correct understanding and a proper judging of reality and an accurate identification of deceitful people”, “collapsing the ruling stereotypical traditions of the society through protest”, “special attention to logic and reasoning”, “welcoming to unknown phenomena”, “emotional and mental instability in some cases” and “enlightenment and scholarship”.

The elements of reality and fantasy are combined to create a superhuman work in magic realism, as a new style of contemporary fiction. In such stories, the elements of reality and fantasy are merged in a way that make the story natural and credible to the audience. Magic realism is a subset of realism and cannot be considered as an independent school; because it has no independent and new framework and includes most of the components of realistic fiction. Examining the principles of magic realism, it has been tried, in present paper, to mention the views of literary experts and critics initially, and then, to study the features and components of magic realism in "Paribād ", a novel by Mohammad Ali Oloumi. The presence of imaginative and fantastic elements such as fairies, demons, winged humans, blood rain, and disappearance of cities puts the story of Paribād in the category of magic realism.

Just like the literary characters of other nations, the Persian writers and speakers have greatly benefited the Holy Quran, the divine miracle had been revealed to the great prophet of Islam (PBUH), both literally and spiritually, and have used It to adorn their works. The rhetoricians have called these sometimes obvious and sometimes hidden effects: adaptation, implication, allusion, etc. Studying the works have been produced under the influence of Holy Quran with regard to the literary industries and the analysis of their examples, some writers seem considering the two industries of adaptation and implication the same, accepting no difference between them. Through the study of rhetorical and literary books and looking at the evidences and examples, it has been tried in present research to determine the boundary and the differences between "adaptation" and "implication".

The discussion of literary genres has been widely raised in literary circles in all of the world and has experienced significant changes since the opening day when Aristotle introduced it firstly. In our literary circles, however, a very superficial attention has been paid to it, in a way that this surface attention has prevented new discussions in this regard; what has incompletely and primitively entered our literary debates on this subject, without being equated with Persian literary language, however, we sometimes find something out of that from which the samples and the components are incomplete as a consequence. Proposing new examples of literary genres, it has been tried in present paper to illustrate some of the defects and to prove that the inclusion of literary works in Aristotle's classification of genres is not accurate and needs to be seriously reviewed. The fluidity of sub-genres, their independence, and the dominant or non-dominant genres etc. are among the topics have being discussed at the current level of this study. Although, the criticisms will be received in this regard and the discussions can be followed-up.

Providing an analysis of the structural and grammatical elements of Shams Tabrizi's Articles through a semantic approach, it has been tried in present paper, to invite readers taking a new and different reading of this masterpiece. As structural studies show, the literary genres follow certain syntactic and grammatical patterns. The verbal modes and different types of nouns and pronouns have their special semantic effects in language. So, it can be seen how Shams develops the theory of similarity, using various techniques such as omitting and spacing, and utilizing tools such as reversal of meaning, creating encrypted structures, and entering the territory of trope that results in uncertainty and indeterminacy and how, in this case, the language reduces its enlightenment aspect to be able to find a radical and progressive (avant-garde) state.

Upon arrival, modernity caused widespread changes in various levels of Iranian society, including the intellectual and cultural levels, and the mystical discourse, as a dominant traditional discourse in Iranian culture, changed afterwards. Persian novels were among the works that showed these changes or they themselves were involved in creating an effective dissidence. So, their examination can play an important role in rheology of mysticism and its position in the contemporary era. This research is to investigate the representation of mystic discourse in the novels of "Wandering Island" and "Wandering Cameleer" of Simin Daneshvar. Three "traditional", "modern" and "semi-traditional" discourses have been represented in this novel. In traditional discourse, the revival of the traditional role of mysticism in man's emancipation has been emphasized; but mysticism has been criticized in modern discourse and it has no role in this thought to solve the problems of contemporary society. The representation of these two discourses has been accomplished, if not say badly, with at least considerable weaknesses. In the "semi-traditional" discourse in which representation is accompanied with "goodness", the author presents, based on the teachings of traditional mysticism, a kind of mysticism that is consistent with modern society.

To understand the rhetoric of Persian language and to recognize its capacities in expressing meaning, its syntactic structures should be initially studied and analyzed. It is only possible in this way to know how a particular concept and in what structure it should be expressed. "Restriction and bound" is one of the concepts has various syntactic structures in the Persian language. This variety of syntactic structures expresses the high capacity of syntax in Persian language to induce rhetoric intentions and creating a perfect conforming between the form and the language format with the desired meaning and purpose. In this regard, it has been tried in this paper, relying on Saadi's words, to identify all the facilities and capacities of Persian language in expressing the restriction and to propose a distinct classification for them. The results show that all of the facilities express the restriction in Persian language can be divided into two general categories: 1) The metalinguistic process, which has no specific lingual sign to be appeared in the objective chain of language; "stress" is the only capacity of this process. 2) The objective factors and signs of language; syntactic structures such as "attributives", "exceptions", "displacement of components" and "use of special constraints" are subsets of this category

Nizami Ganjaviis a powerful storyteller and poet who shapes the world of stories and the world of each of the heroes as he wants, through proper using of lingual structures and based on the purpose he follows. How does Nizami succeed to create his voice in the story with command and authority? And how does he shape the routine of the story according to his purpose and how does he makes the audience accompanied with him? The methods Nizami used to control the routine of narrative are studied in present paper. The discourse analysis of Nizami's romance, khosrow and Shirin, and scrutinizing the interpersonal and mental function of language show that Nizami has intelligently used a variety of techniques, such as modality (state expression), aggression, speech, viewpoint changing, and focusing to consolidate his command, to lead the routine of narrative, and to achieve a colorful and effective style.

Saadi is one of the Persian poets and writers who have composed poems in different forms of Arabic language that shows his special skill and fluency in this language. Metaphor, as the most important rhetoric issue, has been discussed and analyzed in Saadi's Arabic poems in present research. It should be noted that he has totally used the metaphorical images 109 times, out of which 25 as stipulated and 84 as implicit metaphors. In using metaphors, he has paid his most attention to personification, the way he has presented 82 of his metaphorical images. This type of metaphor utilization has resulted in richness of images, dynamism, mobility, and human life in Saadi's Arabic poetms. The most important feature should be considered of the metaphorical images in these poems is their simplicity and clarity which helps, far from any ambiguity and controversy, conveying the thoughts and the themes of the poet's mind.

Qeysar Aminpour, the prominent contemporary Persian poet, was skilled in composing sonnet (ghazal) more than other traditional forms of poetry and besides his expertise in modern poetry. His sonnets are of certain simplicity and directness with no complexity or special artificiality. His sonnet is considered as the continuation of a flow in modern literature which is called “New Sonnet” and is said to be more close to the spirit of the Modern or Nimaei Poetry. The prevailing mood for his sonnets is mainly: expressing the narration (hadith) of his own self, describing his inner and personal states, and, a mild social criticism. He uses a simple language, ordinary addressing and even conversation to achieve a suitable way to express his points. This kind of poem lacks the traditional constraints of sonnet, both in terms of content and theme and in terms of form and structure. In terms of form and structure, the distiches of this type of sonnet are short, while the focus of semantic unity of the poem is more on the vertical axis of sonnet. He has also made innovations in the field of rhyming so that he has utilized radifs (identical ending syllables) –mostly verbal- in his sonnets. Through a descriptive method and using and reference to the statistical tools, it has been tried in present paper to explain the subject of discussion.