نشریه مطالعات نظری هنر
پیاپی 1 (پاییز و زمستان 1400)

Yaqout style of Naskh script through the Iranian followers of Yaghout, influenced by the aesthetic understanding of the Iranians, first in Tabriz (Abdolah Seyrafi) and Shiraz (Yahya Sufi) and then in the early 15th century A.D. went through the stages of evolution In Herat ( Shams Baysonghori, etc.). In the second half of the 15th century A.D. the active centers of Naskh script are Herat, Shiraz, Baghdad and to some extent Tabriz. Important calligraphers like Ghotb Moghaysi, Zeynolabedin Shirazi, Sheykh Mahmoud Heravi, Abdolah Heravi (Tabakh) are in effective centers. Of course, Herat is the most important center and these calligraphers are somehow influenced by the current formed in Herat. We are facing a number of calligraphy centers by the fall of the Timurid dynasty and the transfer of the center to Tabriz. Herat, Shiraz and Tabriz are no longer as closely linked as they were during the Timurid period. The multiplicity of centers with almost independent approaches is one of the factors in the formation of regional methods in Naskh script. Another important factor is the strengthening of the Nasta'liq script through the appearance of the movement for the manuscripts productions of Persian literary works, which draws the attention of transcribers from Naskh to Nasta’liq script. Lack of attention to Mohaghagh and Reyhan scripts is also effective in Naskh evolution in the second half of the 16th century. Due to these factors and the decline of Herat as an influential center of the classical Yaghout style, the Naskh script is no longer the dominant style after Abdolah Tabakh. In Shiraz which there was an independent tradition from ex-eras, new styles are appearing in calligraphers’ artworks such as Rouzbehan, Fakhar etc. Tabriz is an important center of calligraphy in the 16th century A.D. and Alaedin Tabrizi is the most important Naskh calligrapher. First, he is transcribing in Yaghout style but later, he is approaching his independent style. This period is an end to the classical Yaghout style in Iran. However, the deviation from Yaghout style had started before him in Shiraz calligraphers. The new method, in the first step, distances itself from Yaghout style in characteristics such as pen’s size ratio to letters’ bodies, strengths and weaknesses, and also the effectiveness of Tholoth script. Of course, this opinion is presented while doubting the authenticity of some works attributed to Alaedin because he also had a name that provides the basis for this doubt. It seems that Iranian Naskh was born by combining his style with the tradition of Shiraz Naskh transcribers about a century later in Isfahan.

The acceptance of writing the Quran by Mohaghagh script begins at a time when the Kufi script is no longer widely used. The development and application of Mohaghagh script in Quranic transcribing, as the most important script in the Islamic world (especially in Iran), has lasted for about five centuries, from the 12th  to the 16th century A.D. This expansion was along with the usage development of this script, from manuscripts to inscriptions in this era. The capacity of Mohaghagh script not only in letters and words shape but also in easy transcribing, in comparison to its ancestor Kufi script, is the replacement reason of this script in the Quran transcribing. Calligraphers are more interested in this script transcribing for the Holy Quran than other six pens during these five centuries. This popularity is obvious from remained Quranic manuscripts and inscriptions in that era. Researching to find out the reasons for this reception and finding the formal features and social effects in the spread of Mohaghagh script is the most important goal of this article. Also, why this script was widely accepted in Quranic transcribing in the mentioned centuries, is one of the main questions of this research. In order to achieve the goals and answer the questions, this research uses library and field studies. But the method of achieving the results is to study and analyze the remained examples of the Quranic transcriptions in the 11th to 16th centuries A.D.

The Eastern Kufi is a development of early Kufi that spread from the 10th to 13th century A.D. in the Eastern part of the Islamic world. Eastern Kufi should be considered as a general term for various styles and sometimes completely different from the transcription of the Quran, which although in terms of geometry and shape of the letters originated from the original Kufi, due to the passage of time and influenced by local tastes. The study of codicologists and calligraphers have always been focused on some important artworks in this style. A careful study of the works shows that some Eastern Kufic styles can be attributed to specific geographical areas; such as North of Iran: Tabaristan and Gilan. The oldest dated manuscript in Tabari style is a Quran by Ali Mokhlesi Tabari, dated 964 A.D. and the last artwork is a Quran by Masoud Ibn Isa Maghari Deylami dated 1249 A.D. Attributing this style to the North of Iran is because of transcribers’ names from Roudbar, Mojaver, Deylam and Tabaristan. This style was a small-size script with unique features in letters transcription like ف, ق, and و. Other features are the relatively short height vertical letters and its strong horizontal connections, with little variation in pen thickness. Also verses sections in Tabari Qurans are usually mentioned with four dots and the illuminations and decorations are slight and brief.

During the 15th and 16th centuries A.D., the atmosphere of artistic flourishing in Iran and Anatolia was provided with the support of the courts and the appearance of prominent artists. At this time, there were two influential currents in calligraphy in the Islamic world; one of them was Iranian calligraphy with a history of several hundred years and the other was Ottoman calligraphy which has just been formed and was growing. In addition to inheriting the valuable artistic treasures of earlier periods, the two currents connected and created new styles and schools within themselves. The Qur'an, as the holy book of Islam, has always been of interest to Muslim calligraphers. Iranian calligraphers had a long and brilliant background in transcription, and their skills led to the development of various methods in this field, which, as artistic models, influenced other parts of the Islamic world, including the Ottoman Empire; but so far, the importance of the role of Iranian calligraphy at the beginning of the flourishing of Ottoman calligraphy has not been considered as it should be. The purpose of this article is to study Iranian and the Ottoman Quran transcription links in the 15th and 16th centuries A.D., with a view to the developments in calligraphy and the Quran transcription techniques and cultural-artistic exchanges of these two lands. So these questions are mentioned: How are the relations between Iranian and Ottoman calligraphy formed in the transcribing of the Quran and what are its manifestations by looking at the similarities and differences? This research has been provided by descriptive-analytical method and comparative approach and based on the purpose, the historical, cultural and artistic fields and a number of the Quran by leading calligraphers of Iranian and Ottoman calligraphers have been studied.

Mirza Ahmad Neyrizi is one of the calligraphers of the late Safavid period who has a special place in the history of Naskh script. The number of Qurans transcribed by him during about seventy years of transcription, along with treatises, pilgrimage letters, supplications, and pieces and albums is so large that less calligraphers have been so successful. Zeynol Abedin Esfahani known as Ashraf al-Kotab (1773 A.D.) was a prominent calligrapher during the Qajar period and was a prolific calligrapher who, despite his long life, transcribed until his old age. The aesthetic advantages of the transcribed works of these two calligraphers in a long historical period caused a significant number of calligraphers to be their successors and followers, and for many years until the contemporary period, calligraphers have loved the stylistic features of each of them. The purpose of this research is a comparative study and measurement of similarities and differences such as transcribing angle and pen expulsion, connections, proportions in the body and letters of words, strengths and weaknesses, word order in lines, page layout and legibility so determination and recognition of specific calligraphy styles in Mirza Ahmad Neyrizi and Zeynol Abedin Esfahani’s artworks can be answered according to fundamentals of visual literacy and application of the principles of Gestalt theory. This article has been done by analytical method and collection of library information with a comparative approach and shows that due to the formal changes as well as visual richness, despite the differences and similarities in the aesthetic characteristics of these transcriptions, each of the two masters has a special method and styles.

Mohaghagh script and its exemplary glory in the Quran transcription revolution has been written in various styles in the wide Islamic geography. Sometimes greatness and glory aspects of this script were increased because of kingdom supports of the Quran transcription and it affected the value and pen power and also transcription creativity in such Qurans. Baysonghor Mirza’s Quran in Timurid era and Ahmed Karahisari’s Quran in Ottoman era are two of those artworks which are Quranic masterpieces. Components taken from Mohaghagh script in Baysonghori Quran are spacing between the words, height of alefs and regulation of baseline based on line-transcription. Sharpness and cut of virtual ascension in Baysonghori’s Quran are excellent so the virtual ascension and the end of “morsal” letters and letters’ jagged are so sharp like sword. Karahisari’s style is a combination of Mohaghagh and large Tholoth and the amounf t of roundness is based on Tholoth and Naskh script, like to be soft. This subject has a connection to features of  pen cutting, kind of paper and ink. Making groups by ر and و  letters and connections of م and  و can be seen in both Qurans. Also using کاف نفیری  repeatedly makes a long distance between verses in both Qurans. The orders of dots and their compositions in both Qurans are various and are in square, rectangular, circle and diagonal triangle forms and sometimes they are transcribed by smaller and tinier pens.

Today, one of the necessities of calligraphy research community and related arts is to identify the evolution of calligraphy pens, especially in the early centuries of Islam. Fortunately, in recent years, in addition to historical researches, valuable researches have been done in stylistic studies and artistic features of various calligraphy pens, which will certainly help to understand Islamic calligraphy more and better, and complete its evolution. Identifying and introducing the features of the various manuscripts of the Holy Quran is one of the solutions that speeds up this process. The "Golden Quran" is one of the unique manuscripts in the history of Islamic calligraphy which is kept in Bavarian State Library in Munich these days. In the museum index of this artwork, the history of the 11th century A.D. is mentioned and it is considered to belong to Iran or Iraq. The name of this artwork is because of thin gold cover on all its pages. This Quran does not have any signatures and transcription date, however, according to initial studies, it can be said that it is transcribed under Ibn al-Bawwab’s style- the 10th A.D. well-known calligrapher. Exaggerated stretching “س”  letter in بسم الله at the beginning of the surahs, using colorful inks like white, brown, lac next to black ink, minor tendency of vertical letters to the left side, compact writing of words, at the same time of distinct writing are those points that can be analyzed according to relating this artwork to Ibn al-Bawwab’s style. In addition, in this research, items such as page layout order as well as rules of usage and decorative patterns of markings used at the beginning of the surahs, the end of the verses and the margins of the pages have been studied.