نشریه پژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران
پیاپی 38 (پاییز 1402)

Simultaneously with the formation of class societies and civilizations in Mesopotamia, there was an increasing need for various sources. The civilizations in the Mesopotamian Plain, due to their limited and in some cases the lack of such sources, were forced to establish extensive connections with another areas. Tukrish is one of the areas that has been considered by the Mesopotamians in this regard. In Most of the researches that have been done on the approximate location of Tukrish, scattered references to this area in the inscriptions, have led researchers to consider only a few limited inscriptions for the final conclusion. In addition, there is an imbalance in the investigation of inscriptions and ancient works, among the researches related to Tukrish. For these reasons, various ancient areas and cultures have been proposed for this toponymy. In this research, an attempt has been made to investigate about the inscriptions related to Tukrish, ancient mining and trade routes, in order to suggest the most suitable area for it. In the Mesopotamian inscriptions, Tukrish is introduced as a mountainous land, with a political system of princely settlements, with various mines and as a commercial intermediary. Tukrish is first attested in Ur III period. According to archaeological findings, a lapis lazuli and tin trade route was formed in the north of the Iranian plateau in the Ur III period. According to the available evidence, Tukrish was located somewhere on this trade route, in the northwest on Iran and the east of Assyria. According to the mentioned mines for Tukrish, its more precise location can be considered as the boundary between the two mining axes of Astana-Sarband and Takab-Dashkasen. This placement guarantees access to gold, silver and tin mines in the Sanandaj-Sirjan orogenic axis, especially Takab and Shazand mines, which have many ancient mining artifacts.

The beginning of iron using in construction of metal objects has always been one of the important topics in the archeology of Ancient Near East in late second millennium and the early first millennium B.C. In Iran, researching on this issue is not homogeneous for different regions and Ancient Elam is one of the regions that have received less attention. The city of Susa, one of the important centers of Elam, has played a prominent role in production of metal artifacts and transit of various metals to Mesopotamia, based on the material data and cuneiform sources. However, in various conducted researches, either this issue has been ignored or has not been studied independently with considering both types of material evidence and cuneiform texts; Therefore, in present study, an attempt has been made to get a general overview of the progress of iron using and making iron objects in Elam and the role of both material and textual sources in this issue by studying archeological records, cuneiform texts and researches conducted on both types of sources. The results of this research show that using iron in Elam in second millennium B.C and early first millennium B.C was very limited and it is only from the beginning of the Neo Elamite II period that we see its prevalence. The current research also points out that cuneiform documents, despite some limitations, can be used as supplement to cultural materials as they provide us the oldest evidence of an iron object in ancient Elam. In the interim, the administrative texts related to the late Neo Elamite from Susa (MDP 9) have special importance because they mention issues such as existence of blacksmith workshops and also the manufacture and delivery of various iron objects in Susa and its suburbs. Moreover, the comparison of the information obtained from both types of evidence about iron will clarify the shortcomings and capabilities of the material and textual sources.

Shahrizor is a vast plain in the eastern part of Iraqi Kurdistan, located near the western borders of Iran, which had a good deal of importance during the Sassanian period because of its location in the middle of the road from the Sassanian capital of Ctesiphon to the famous fire temple of Azar Goshnasb in Shiz) present-day Takht-e Soleiman). The name of this place has been mentioned in the Sassanid contemporary sources, including the important inscription of Narseh in Paikuli, as well as the book of Karnameh-ye Ardeshir-e Babakan and Syriac texts. According to the bilingual inscription (Pahlavi and Parthian) of the Paikuli Tower, this place was called “Syārazūr” during the Sassanid period and was one of the areas whose inhabitants were present at the celebration of the Narseh victory in Paikuli. Despite the importance of this region in the studies of the Sassanid period, so far little attention has been paid to it, especially by Iranian researchers. This research, based on library studies, has studied Shahrizor in the Sassanid period based on historical sources and the results of the archaeological excavations. For this purpose, assuming that the Shahrizor plain was important during the Sassanian period due to various political, economic and religious aspects, we answer the questions about the reasons for the importance of this place, its appearance in the Sassanian period, and the location of its main settlement based on the historical texts and archaeological results of surveys and excavations. Some of the natural and geographical features of the Shahrizor plain are its average height (about 500-600 m above sea level), fertile soil and access to important water-rich rivers such as Tanjero, Little Zab and Sirwan, as well as numerous permanent springs. Based on the results of the archeological surveys and excavations, Bestansur, Gerd-i Kazhaw and Gird-I Qalrakh are the important sites of the Shahrizor plain which have an archaeological layer of Sasanian settlement. In addition, the site of Yasin tepe has been introduced as the main candidate for the Sassanid and early Islamic city of Shahrizor due to its large size. However, the site of Gird-I Qalrakh, which, according to the results of the excavations, has significant data from this period, can also be one of the proposed options for the main settlement of Shahrizor.

The Azak region in southern Russia, now known as Azo, played an active role during the Islamic Middle Ages in the Islamic lands. This city has been a port for the exchange of products of the Islamic territory to Europe. Accordingly, among the pottery pieces found, all pottery is one of the flagship pottery products of Islamic civilization. Archaeological excavations in this area have found artifacts that show its high importance in the Islamic realm during the 7th to 9th centuries AH. Iranian pottery include various types of pottery with the style of painting under glaze, painting on glaze, carved under glaze, among which, pottery known as “Kashin”, is predominant. Despite the fact that thousands of pottery pieces of Iran belonging to the 7th to 9th centuries AH have been found in this area, but no information about the pottery works of this area can be found in Iranian and Islamic sources. However, the study of these pottery can introduce new types of pottery of the Islamic period to researchers and play a key role in the typology of Iranian pottery in the middle Ages. Now, this research intends to study the pottery found in this city, based on field and library studies, during the archeological excavations of the Azo Museum, which are also kept in this museum. In this research, the following questions will be answered: What types of pottery are found in this city? What historical period do these pottery belong to? Based on this study, it was found that most of the pottery in Azak region belongs to the pottery known as “Kashin” style pottery that was produced in Kashan. After that, enamel and Luster Painted Pottery are in the next categories, which were also more than the products of Kashan. These pottery covers the period from the 7th to the 9th centuries AH, which is based on the studies of archaeologists of the Azo Museum in Russia.

One of the important sites of the Seleucid period in Iran is Laodicea in Hamadan province. This site was subjected to systematic survey and archaeological excavations during the years 2004, 2010 and 2021; A part of the cultural data of the excavation determined that the site was reused in the later especially the Islamic periods. In this article, Islamic glazed pottery obtained from three seasons of archaeological excavations has been carefully studied and a comprehensive classification has been prepared. Considering that the importance of the site was more in the historical period, conducting this research can help in clarifying the status of the site in the Islamic period as well as the position of Hamedan in the production of medieval Islamic period. The present research has been done by field studies (description, photography, design, classification and typology) and library studies (comparative studies and relative chronology). The results of the research show that this region was of special importance in the medieval Islamic period due to its location on the highway from Baghdad to Khorasan, and this factor caused the creation of many cultural connections with other regions, the evidence of which has appeared in the characteristic pottery of this region.

The historical site of Rab-e Rashidi of Tabriz or Rashidieh of Tabriz, which was built in 700 AH and It was used until the tenth century AH. It has been exploited in various residential and military ways. One of the architectural structures of Rab-e Rashidi is its large tower, which is located on the southern front. According to preliminary studies of this structure it has built in the tenth century AH. The engineering structure of the Rab-e Rashidi has not yet been studied archaeologically from a technological point of view. In particular, this large tower, contrary to the common architecture of the eighth to tenth centuries AH in Iran, especially Tabriz, is made of stone materials. It is natural that the knowledge of construction technology and technology used in this tower, which is contrary to similar buildings of the seventh to tenth centuries AH, requires the adoption of archaeological studies of technology and structure. This study is to review those examples of studies whose process can be repeated experimentally. Therefore, the mortar technology used in this tower, which has fully survived it from the severe earthquakes of the Safavid and early Qajar periods in Tabriz, needs to be re-recognized by scientific methods including field and laboratory studies and analytical and experimental. In this study, five mortar samples were prepared from five different points of the tower and studies of XRD, XRF, SEM, FTIR, petrography and digital microscope were performed. As a result of the studies, it was found that lime mortar was used in all parts of the tower, from the foundation to the upper parts made of stone. Some sand is used in lime mortar and there is a small amount of soil. Contrary to popular belief, no gypsum was detected in the mortar composition.

Troglodytic, as structures that are made without the use of usual materials and just by digging the ground or rock and mountain, are important in terms of issues such as adaptation to climate and environment and the optimal use of energy. Isfahan province, as a vast province with an area of about 106786 square kilometers and with different climates, has many examples of troglodytic architecture. This research was based on descriptive-analytical method and its aim was to study the distribution of 19 cases in Isfahan province and discover possible patterns and correlations between their locations and various cultural and natural environments factors. This study sought to answer these questions: 1) How is the dispersion pattern troglodytic of Isfahan province, relative to elevation, distance from water resources including seasonal and permanent rivers and Qanat, slope, distance from roads, location relative to villages and cities and climate and temperature? 2) If these troglodytic are correlated with the mentioned factors, what is the reason of this correlation? And 3) is it possible to determine the use of these troglodytic according to the results of this research? The method was includes collecting information through articles and reports related to archaeological surveys and excavations, gathering spatial and geographical information of the studied troglodytic such as geographical coordinates by field method and finally analyzing the obtained information and classifying them by ArcGIS software. In order to achieve more accurate results, the troglodytic were divided into two categories based on function: residential troglodytic and defensive and ritual troglodytic. Based on findings, it was found that those troglodytic had residential use or generaly were used daily, are more correlated with environmental and geographical factors. On the other hand, the second category of troglodytic, which were built with the aim of hiding, are more related to cultural and human factors. It can be said that in the dispersion pattern of residential troglodytic, environmental factors and in the dispersion pattern of defense and ritual troglodytic, cultural factors have priority.

Some of the glories of cultural Iran have been preserved in the area of long-lasting and enduring elements, such as lithographs. The elements that have the most resilience against the harsh nature as well as the events of the time and in a way preserve the culture of this land as well as its longevity. Some of these works are still based on different areas such as caves, rivers and mountains. One of those forms is the tombstones, of which there are valuable examples in different parts of Iran. In addition to identifying the deceased, these elements sometimes included multiple symbolic elements related to the traits, characteristics, occupation, gender, social status, interests or secrets of the heart, the survivors of him. The mausoleum of the Islamic period of Shahsavar Izeh, whose oldest historical shrine is about four hundred years old, is one of the mausoleums that have the said characteristics. The symbolic visual elements of this cemetery, which are displayed on its tombstones, represent two climatic and tribal features. The nature of these tombstones and how and why their symbolic meanings are the questions that will be answered in this research. The aim of this research is first to better understand the symbolic and decorative elements of Izeh city and Khuzestan region and then to complete the information of Iranian lithographs. The present study is qualitative and has a phenomenological nature.

Recognition of the historical cities in different periods recounts the history of Iranian-Islamic civilization that access to such information requires studying the structure of their architecture and urbanization. The historical city of Soltaniyeh, as the third capital of the Ilkhanate, was one of the most important political and economic centers of its time, and today only the boundaries of the monuments of the old city can be identified. Aiming to create the right context for recreation and protection of the remains of Soltaniyeh, this study identifies the spatial structure of this city, which is one of the most basic proceedings for its optimal expansion. According to the mentioned necessity, the present article, using analytical-comparative study, attempts to present the assumptive plan of the spatial structure of Soltaniyeh city by investigating historical documents, in particular, Matrakci Miniature. The results of the study, implicates to a premeditated and predesigned plan which include three parts: ancient fort, middle citadel, or downtwon, and Rabaz, each of which has a definite architectural and urbanization component. Throughout history, urban elements, which mentioned more than others in the documents, have faced the least amount of damage to date (like the Oljeitu Tomb with 46.66% repetition in resources), or it was possible to identify their exact location (like the city’s middle tower and battlement with 40% repetition in resources), and they are still visible today. Urban elements that have the least repetition rate (6.66%) or they are indexed only in one document, have no precise location in the assumptive plan. Other urban elements which have been repeated in more than one historical document (With percentages between 6.66% and 40%), due to the availability of analytical-comparative study conditions, are located in the assumptive plan and it seems possible that they can be recreated in the current situation with the help of experts.

During the Safavid epoch to the Pahlavi era, Khorāsgān was a Qariya, Qaṣaba, and City respectively. The Khorāsgān City was founded by joining several Qariya in 1964 and joining Isfahan in 2013. In the present study, while introducing the cultural landscape of Khorāsgān and understanding its boundaries in different periods, the structure of one of its forgotten neighborhoods called “Miyān” or “Vostā” was studied and its approximate range was determined. In addition, according to field surveys and the study of various documents, it is obvious that the measures taken by Bāqer Khān-e Khorāsgāni and the increase of water resources caused the wealth of the region to double and its influence can be traced in the development of Khorāsgan and in particular, some houses built with luxurious architecture in this neighborhood. Thus, contrary to what has been said so far regarding the attribution of the Khān complex to Bāqer Khān-e Khorāsgāni, it was determined that Bāqer Khān had no role in the construction of this luxurious architectural complex and the Khān complex was constructed by local Khāns in the early Qajar period. Due to the existence of the aforementioned houses and buildings attributed to Bāqer Khān (mosque and bathhouse), the Vostā neighborhood was considered the most important part and center of the Qariya and Qaṣaba during this period. The death of the fifth generation of Khāns and also the land reform in the second Pahlavi period (1941-1979) led to the decline of the political, social, and economic power of the Khorāsgān Khāns. Therefore, the development of the Vostā, unlike the Olyā and Soflā neighborhoods, was stopped and its central role faded away. Also, the construction of Abāzar Street and the relocation of the Jāmeʿ mosque (AKA. Friday mosque) from this neighborhood in 1979 led to the destruction of the neighborhood and its landmarks, so the name of the neighborhood was forgotten and removed from the urban divides of Khorāsgān.

The mill is an example of one of the first human endeavors to harness natural forces to perform mechanical work and the ancestor of a long line of machines. Water has been the driving force of the mill. In arid and semi-arid lands such as Iran, it made people think about the provision and use of water resources to meet the needs of the society, and the result was the construction of innovative structures. This would not have been possible except with sufficient knowledge of the geographical context and environmental capabilities. The main economic activity of ancient Iran was based on agriculture and mills are one of the structures related to this economy. The need to pay attention to traditional mills is important because we know that there are few remnants of them left and a major part of this technical and management history that was associated with local experiences and diverse architecture are now being destroyed and forgotten. The basis of this research was provided by identifying eight mills in Jovein and Jughatay plains in the northwestern part of Khorasan Razavi province, during archaeological studies in 1399.Studying the evidence left by these mills, which belonged to the Qajar period, could answer questions about how these structures are located, water management and guidance, as well as how the mills function. Therefore, in addition to field surveys and on-site documentation, an attempt was made to extract and analyze the physical evidence left over from these engineering structures using remote sensing methods. In this regard, in addition to field research, other studies with a similar subject were reviewed and finally the findings were processed and analyzed by comparative study. The result of this research was the existence of a common approach in the construction of mills that supplied their driving force from river and surface runoff.

One of the latest issues in the social justice issue is spatial justice in cities. The level of access to public space and urban services and the effects of this on the mental space of citizens is the focus of this paper discussion. The concept of justice in Islam is a fundamental concept whose evaluation from the perspective of spatial justice in Islamic cities can greatly contribute to epistemological development on the one hand and urban policymaking on the other hand. The aim of the current research is to evaluate spatial justice in a part of the historical context of Yazd city (as a global city) during the Qajar period. The focus of Roshi’s departure is to evaluate the access level of two groups of nobles and ordinary people to three forms of urban facilities, i.e. mosque, reservoir and market. Analysis was done using architectural and archeological evidence in Golchinan neighborhood of Yazd, as well as the results obtained from the geographic information system. The results showed that social and economic class had an impact on the spatial organization of neighborhoods. The aristocracy has settled in a position where they can benefit the most or the best from the city’s facilities. From the point of view of justice, this finding is a place for criticism. Despite this, it seems that people’s social interactions were not based on class conflict or the perception of social inequality. Unlike the modern city, although the traditional Islamic city has an unequal distribution of facilities, it seems that compared to modern societies, this unequal distribution does not have a significant effect on the perception of inequality. The researchers are of the opinion that the non-segregated spatial organization, high class interactive action, and Islamic concepts have greatly helped to reduce the perception of inequality among citizens.

The typology can also include micro issues on a small scale of architecture to metropolitan issues. According to the changes that have taken place in the last century, historical houses are severely subject to destruction, while they constitute the major part of the fabric of the historical cities of Iran. Investigations show that so far not many studies have been done on these houses, thinking about them due to matching the needs of Iranian people and the construction environment can be beneficial in reaching a suitable housing model. The current research is a qualitative approach and in terms of theoretical purpose. The research strategy has a historical method and the research method is descriptive-analytical in terms of the type of results. The main issue of this article is how the culture of the people of the region affects the formation of the types of houses in Sanandaj during the first Pahlavi period. Therefore, with a cultural-physiological look at the houses of Ahmadzadeh, Amir Asefi and Mesri, the most obvious characteristic affecting the formation of their species was extracted. The purpose of this research is to study and understand the relationship between the architecture of houses in Sanandaj and the culture of the Kurdistan region, to know the architectural types of Sanandaj houses in the first Pahlavi period from the cultural point of view of the Kurdistan region, and to analyze the characteristics of the existing types of houses in Sanandaj based on the reading (study and analysis) of the buildings. The results of this research show that the percentage of open and closed spaces in the historical houses of Sanandaj indicate the formation of the body of the houses, and also factors such as maintaining privacy, culture and customs are among the main indicators. And the culture of Ahmadzadeh, Amir Asefi and Mesri houses, which shows the preservation of social-physical identity and local culture in Sanandaj city.

The Iranian plateau has witnessed various cultural, social, and political phenomena from the prehistoric millennia to the present century. Sometimes some of them have led to prosperity, growth, and development, and others have been accompanied by war, conflict, and collapse. On the other hand, the diverse and variable ecosystem of the Iranian plateau as one of the semi-arid regions in Southwest Asia leads to different environmental and climatic conditions. Like many other parts of the world, these circumstances caused prolonged droughts, floods, and other unpredictable environmental disasters or disturbances. However, ecological catastrophes, climate change, social and political transformations do not confine to this landscape or current time. Amid these circumstances, what makes a society resilient to these often unpredictable disturbances is its ability to cope with them. I do argue that learning from past experiences will enable communities to consciously manage the crisis and prevent trial and error methods. In recent decades, various theories have been proposed in anthropology and archeology. One of these theories, borrowed from ecology, is the theory of “resilience”. In this research, the role of archeology in resilience studies and different aspects of this theory is expounded. It designates how archaeology, with its multidisciplinary nature, under the resilience framework can transfer the knowledge of the past societies to us. Resilience theory is one of the rare frameworks that explore change, transformation, and development within a long-perspective environmental setting as well as its contemporary social, political, and economic contexts. Evaluating the correlations between climatic and cultural changes in Longue-durée, recognizing a degree of sustainability, finding probable past societies solutions to environmental challenges, and deciphering the long-term processes of resilience are the objectives that could be addressed under this framework. In this article, the significance of this theory as a promising bridging approach for the hazardous landscape of the Iranian plateau is demonstrated.