آرش اکبری مفاخر

The article examines the remaining written examples of the ancient language spoken by the people of Hamadan, as quoted by Maqdisī and Qumī (4th century AD), to understand Bābā Ṭāhir’s couplets. It also identifies Bābā Ṭāhir’s couplets in manuscripts dating from the 7th to the 11th century AD, as well as in ritual texts of Ahl al-Ḥaqq in the Gorānī language. Bābā Ṭāhir’s couplets are categorized as simple and ambiguous, and to determine their linguistic scope, five ambiguous and problematic couplets have been selected from the Jung of the Konya Museum (dated 848 AH) and Taqī al-Dīn Kāšānī’s Xulāsat al-ašʻār (dated 1007 AH). Using the descriptive method, the author has read and explained the words and meanings of these couplets and concluded that the old language of the people of Hamadan and the couplets of Bābā Ṭāhir are Gorānī.

The most obvious point in the studies of Iranian epic literature is the focus of these studies on the epic works of eastern Iran, focusing on the Persian language and the Shahname, and not paying attention to Iranian epic literature in other languages and dialects. In this article, for the first time, Iran's epic literature is divided into two branches of Western and Eastern Iran in three periods: Ancient, Middle and Modern. In the ancient period, during the kingdom of Elam, Medes and Achaemenids, there has been investigations with regard to the influences of Mesopotamia and Scythian civilizations in the western branch and Avestan epic literature in the eastern branch. In the Middle period, Parthian and Sassanid epic literature has been recognized due to the unity of Avestan and Achaemenid narratives, the influence of Greek culture and the division of the time horizon of Iranian epic literature into two branches A (from Kiyomarth to Bahman) and B (from Kiyomarth to Yazdgerd). Its reflection can be seen in Pahlavi texts and Khodāynamē respectively. In the new period (after Islam), epic literature has been divided into two western branches centered on the Gurani language and the eastern branch centered on the Persian language. Each of these branches has been examined in the two main sections of Shahname writing and Shahnameseari in two Sepehrs A and B, and religious, historical, heroic-love and prose epics have been introduced throughout cultural Iran. In the approach of Persian and Kurdish language, epic literature in the neighboring lands of Iran is also mentioned.

Iranian epic literature during the Parthian and Sassanid eras to post-Islamic Iran is divided into two branches, East and West. There is no information about the epic works of Western Iran in the first centuries of Islam, but Shahmardan Ibn Abi al-Khair in his book Nozhatnameh Alaei introduces three epic works of Pahlavi's poem, Shahname of Piroozan and Rostam Larjani's book that appeared in the beginning of the fifth century AH in western Iran. Piroozan translated his work from Pahlavi language into Dari Persian and brought the two periods of Pishdadian and Kianian kingdoms along with many stories by Rostam and Faramarz. From a structural point of view, the Shahname of the Piroozan has a structure similar to the structure of Avestan narratives and Pahlavi texts, which is also reflected in the Shahname of Abolmoayedi. Rostam Larjani's book was probably the poetic form of Shahname Piroozan along with the local history of western Iran up to the time of the poet and in Gorani language, which can be the source of epic narrations left in Gorani language in western Iran.

The old section of Borzonameh is one of the prominent works in the Persian epic literature and its two Gurani and Persian narratives are available.  From the latter four main manuscripts close to 4200 verses exist such as the Cambridge manuscript 829 lunar, Dehli manuscript, 831 lunar Bysonghori 833 lunar, and Leningrad 849 lunar .  From the former there is an manuscript dated 1345 lunar in 2357 verses.  The striking resemblances of these two narratives is the motive for the writer of this article to compare them and study three hypothesis regarding the origin of their formation.  First the existence of one common prose source for both narratives which due to the 500 years distance in writing the possibility of their comparison do not seem logical and scientific.  Second, the translation of the text from Persian to Gurani is not possibe due to the elemination of nearly 2000 verses from the Shahnameh, and third the translation of the text from Gurani to Farsi seems more logical and is more feasible since in view of finding exact equivalence of dictions, translation of Gurani phrases and hemistichs into Persian as well as adding hemistichs or verses in addition to what exist in the main text of the story from Shahnameh looks more reasonable.

The story of Rustam and Zanün is a masterpiece of the epic literature of Iran in Gurani. It has no counterpart in Avestan, Middle Persian, Zoroastrian Persian, the national epics, and oral documented literature. The story can be divided into two general parts, i.e. “the story of Rustam and Zanün” and “the story of Aẓīm-Shāh”. While there are several manuscripts and rivayats available at our disposal, the nonacquaintance of scribes and story-tellers of the connected structure of the story has caused the division of the story into two independent sections. The most complete version of this story appears in the manuscript of the Haft-Lashkar in Gurani with 2722 couplets. This story has a coherent structure. The outer structure of the story begins with the cycle of the kingship of Tūs in the land of Tūrān and ends with his second kingship in the land of Tūrān. The inner structure of the story has a bilateral symmetry due to the coming and return of Afrāsiāb, Rustam, and Kay-Khosrow. The core of the story begins after an introduction and an introductory story. Then, the two main stories are given. They are connected together by a connecting story. Finally, the story ends with a concluding story. In general, the outer and inner structure of the story has a symmetrical approach. The oldest and rarest example of such usage is the symmetrical structure of the Gathas.

The Gurani language belongs to the group of modern northwestern Iranian languages. This language has been used in post-Islamic Iran as the standard literary language of western Iran and many literary works have remained in this language since the 3 rd century AH. This language was being formed in the Achaemenes era and covered a much wider area than today. One of the words in the lexicon of this language is gâwdam دمگاو/gâw-dum مگاود) the name of two weapons) which has reached Eastern Iran (gâw-dam in Šāhnāmeh) and China (jâ-dam in Silsilat alTawārīx) in two branches. After describing and introducing the Gurani language and literature, and looking at the association of this language with gâw and its related myths, this article examines the uses of the word gâw-dam دمگاو and its overlapping words in Gurani, Persian, and Chinese languages.

Rostam is the preeminent national hero in Persian epics. There is no mention of Rostam’s name in Avesta and Dinkard, yet in few Pahlavi texts there are some brief references to his name all the more reason for later addition of it. Rostam’s tales are quite well known and popular in Parthian era and towards the end of Sassanid era in particular and had therefore an important role in transmitting and spreading the tales to the Islamic era in two branches, eastern one with Persian language as the focal point and western one with Gorani language as the main concern. The study of the role and standpoint of Rostam in western Iran is the subject matter of this article. In fourth and fifth lunar century, Piruzan Shahnameh in western branch include the mythological history of Iran from the reign of Kayumars till the reign of Bahman with numerous tales of Rostam. Shahnameh or Gordnameh composed by Larijani in Hamedan was produced following the example of Piruzan Shahnameh. In Gorani epics there is a reference to a Shahnameh in prose which seems to be that of Piruzan. Probably the fountain head of Gorani epics goes back to this Shahnameh and narratives of Gordnameh Larijani and their sources. Gorani epics encompass the full cycle of Rostam’s life from birth to his death. Apart from Rostam’s tales in Shahnameh Ferdowsi, there are extra narratives and epics added after the composition of Shahnameh, also narratives recited by the minstrels or naqqals such as Rostam and Zonoon, Rostam and Zardhang of which only their Gorani versions are available

Feraydun is a mythic character who has a major role in the literature of Persian land. His distinctive characteristics among the mythic Persian kings have made him an outstanding figure. His own and his family’s connection with cow is one such peculiar feature. In Persian texts there are disparate references to this relationship. Feraydun is born simultaneously with Barmayeh cow, is fed by this wet nurse and is raised close to it. In his battle against Zahhak he mounts the ox and not the horse, a habit he maintains all through his life due to his modesty towards God. A complete account that Feraydun chooses a red cow, mounts it to fight with Zahhak in passing from Arvand Rud is included in a Gurani text narrated by Shahrokh Kakavandi in West of Iran. Attempt is made in this article to trace Feraydun’s connection with cow, also introduce, translate and edit the Gurani narrative text while discussing its phonography.

Razmnameh Kanizak is a national epic and a narrative from Yadegare Zariran. This epic is part of the manuscript verse Haft Lashkar (seven Army) in Gorani language and is a reflection of a literary genre of composing Shahnameh in the west of Iran. The structure of the Razmnameh and its dramatic approach in two perspectives are reminiscent of Yadegare Zariran. A close look shows that the middle part is exactly a narrative from Yadegare Zariran in Pahlavi and in which Zoroastrianism is renounced and a change of name has occurred. In this perspective Razmnameh in comparison with Shahnameh and Gharar-ol-sayr is closer to the Pahlavi Yadegare Zariran, however a more general look at Razmnameh brings to mind the three stories of Goshtasp and Arjasp, Esfandyar and Arjasp and the seven trials of Esfandyar, which could be named the Parthian version of Yadegare Zariran. In this perspective, the Parthian version in transference to Khodaynameh and Shahnameh Abu Mansuri has lost its main structure but Razmnameh Kanizak has kept its Parthian structure and is the key to the first intact version of Yadegare Zariran.

Zurvanism is one of the oldest sects related to primitive human life style and thoughts. One of the most outstanding doctrines of this sect is determinism and believing in the influence of fate on human destiny. Although there are few traces of Zurvanism in the Avestan texts، they assume a prominent position in Pahlavi texts through which they find their way into Arabian and Persian literature. One of the most important sources of investigation about this system of thought is the Gurani culture and literature. This language dates back to Achaemenid era. “Dinu” is an example of Zurvanist influence on the Gurani culture. In a dialogue between the poet and the village of his residence، he is complaining about his fate and fortune. This paper introduces، transcribes، translates and examines the lexis of this song using a descriptive method.

This article seeks to identify the epic and mythological foundations of the story of the Beasts of Mazandaran in Shahnameh with particular attention to their records in Avestan, Pahlavi, Soghdi and other texts. The very first epic and mythological origin of this story is in the Avestan and Pahlavi texts. In these texts, the beasts appear in two divine and manlike structures and stand against Ahuramazda, deities and men. However, in the ninth book of Dinkard, an independent story makes the epic framework of the story of Beasts of Mazandaran. In this story, beasts are gigantic men who stand against Feraydun. This narration is conveyed to the first report in Koushnameh. These gigantic men in the report of Dinkard and Koushnameh having passed through the stories of Nariman and Maghreb Beasts, Sam and Nareh beasts of Mazandaran and Soghdi Rostamnameh acquire demonic nature and transform into demonic beasts with magic forces and superhuman deeds. In the end, the story of beasts of Mazandaran after being demythologized is conveyed to the second report of Koushnameh

There is no reference to the word “Karimān” in Garshaāp story in the Avesta, Pahlavi and Persian Zoroastrian texts. However, it can be found in the story of “Rostam and Sohrāb”, and “Rostam and Esfandiār” in the Shāh-nāmeh. Since the epic texts in other Iranian languages are significant in Shāh-nāmeh studies, the Haft-Lashkar manuscript and other texts in the Gurani language are worth considering in order investigating the significance of “Karimān”. This word and its modified derivative “Qahramān” in these texts refer to two characters: Narimān’s father and a hero in the age of Hushang and Tahmureth. Therefore, it can be concluded that “Karimān” in the Shāh-nāmeh corresponds to two characters: 1) Nariman's father in the story of “Rostam and Sohrab” and 2) Hushang’s son in the story of “Rostam and Esfandiār”. It can be assumed that Ferdowsi considers sources other than Khoday-nameh and Abumansuri’s Shāh-nāmeh for the word.

Hymn of Arash-e Kamangir is one of the immanent and valuable works in the Gurani language and literature from Pir Kazem-e Kangavari in eighth century. This hymn is about story of Arash-e Kamangir in king Manouchehr time. This hymn is in six verses and syllabic meter. This hymn has mytological, linguistics and historical valences. This paper presents transcription and philological analyis and a translation of this Gurani hymn.

This article survey about the role and meaning of the word “Jāmeh” ([y’mk']: jāmag / yāmak) in this sentence: bē ēt [y’mk']: jāmag / yāmak-ē dah kē barēh(This “Jāme” that you take). This sentence is addressed to Zoroaster, while he is ascending to the sky in the Seventh Book of Dēnkard. This study is based on the historical root-finding and the usage of the word “Jāmeh” in texts of Gurāni (3-14 centuries A.H.) from the Northwestern group of Iranian languages (Partian). The word “Jāmeh” in this language is widely used to mean body, figure and skeleton. “Jāmeh” is the place, where the human psyche shows itself, and during ascension and death, the psyche separates from it. Therefore during Zoroaster's ascension to the sky, Amshāspand Bahman told him to leave his “Jāmeh” – body on the earth and go on a psychological journey with Minoo’s Bahman.

The ontology of daemons refers to the study of daemons while their "Minou and Giti" (spirit and body) have been interwoven and they are visible, strong and giants. The nature of their existence comes from the ontology of Ohrmazd (the uncreated God of Zoroastrianism), Amesh Spenta (a class of divinity that is Ahuramazda's incarnation) and Izadan (minor divinities), because in Mazdaism, the daemons, just like Ahriman (the great archrebel in Zoroastrianism) do not have existence. However, in national epics they will find heir own structures and are similar to the existence of human beings. Every daemon will have a name, feature, and personal characteristics that are making him a special character, separate from other daemons or human being. It is better to say their demonology (black body, giant feature and animalistic face) are coming from Ahriman characteristics, human imagination about the spiritual realm of daemons, the nomadic giant-like people, and magical elements. They also have ability to have metamorphosis, to transform their figures, to be corporal and to get human or animal shapes.

The term "Buya Toronj" only one at Shahnameh Ferdowsi is used. This term indicates an independent myth stories that come in the Shahnameh is. Literature review of Avesta, Pahlavi texts, narratives epic and Persian Revayat Zoroastrianism can be three sources to consider this myth: 1. Jamshid and Asn-kherad (innate wisdom) where Jamshid, abducted by Ahriman and demon from hell and the Court / abdomen demon back returns. 2. Myth Jamshid and Tahmurreth where Jamshid and restore Tahmurreth swallowed by a demon, his hands immersed in the infernal body and the Tahmurreth take out, but he lost by decay, bad breath can be with Gumiz (bull’s urine) be treated. 3. Myth in oral epic in which the hand of Rostam stab in the abdomen are Div-i Spid (Devil white) and he is always full of gold bergamot scent in his hand. In this paper, according to these sources, foundations myth of Buya Toronj recognition was a myth, then is restored.

This article aims at a narratological study of the “Haftgordan story” of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and the story of “Afrasyab-ibn Pashang” as narrated by Anushirvan Marzban in Hormozdyar. After a review of the summaries of the two narratives، a comparative structural study of the works coupled with a study of their mythical and ritual origins are presented. These studies show that Ferdowsi’s account of the story is characterized by its bucolic، nationalistic and rationalistic nature as well as the exclusion of some ritual (Rostam as a Zoroastrian hero) and mythical (Afrasyab’s visit to Satan) parts. Although it seems that the exclusion of ritual parts may have occurred some time before Ferdowsi، it is quite probable that the omission of mythical parts was his own decision. Conversely، Anushiravan’s narrative، originating from priestly order with emphasis on the teachings of Mazdisnai، is more original and unified، and it enjoys from an equally mythical and ritual deep structure that is more in harmony with the similar patterns in Persian stories. This story particularly plays an important role in the analysis of the Persian epic in its transmission from priestly to bucolic narration.

Varmezgan hymn is a valuable poem in Gowrani Language. It is a witness account of the Arab invasion of Iran in 1st century AH. It has been composed by a Zoroastrian poet. Later, it has been inscribed on antelope’s skin. The poem includes four couplets of rhymed poetry each consisting of two ten-syllable verses with a pause in the fifth syllable.A descriptive research, the article presents the transliteration, transcription, lexicology and translation of the above hymn.

The purpose of this research is to study the hostile behavior of Ahriman in destroying Ahura Mazda and his good creations, specially the creation of man. This hostility also continues in the reign of Jamshid. One day Jamshid sat upon a jewel-studded throne and the Divs who served him raised his throne up into the air and he flew through the sky. Feeling proud of what he saw, Jamshid began to forget that all the blessings of his reign were due to God. He was deceived by Ahriman into belittling God and telling lies and doing evils. As a result, he lost his wisdom and the divine Excellency (Farr). From that time onwards, the Farr departed from Jamshid, joined and united with Fereidoun. Zahhaak, the ruler of Arabia, under the influence of Ahriman, attacked Jamshid, and brutally murdered him. Their purpose was to attain Farr, but they never attained it. In the end, the behavior of Ahriman and Zahhaak, led to the symbolic death of Jamshid and the descending of his soul into hell.

This paper studies natural and doctrinal (religious) foundations of Zarvani Satanism and its remaining examples in Shahnameh and Yazidieh Satanist Cult. Zarvani doctrine (religion) has provided the basis for the fear of Ahriman (Satan), sacrificing for him and Satanism because of strong link with natural destructive forces, inevitable destiny and superiority of evil forces over good forces. Superiority of evil over good has been fully depicted in Zarvan's statues and description of Ahriman in Parti Manavi Texts, Alfehrest by Ebn -nadim and symbolization of Malak Tavous (Satan) by Yazidieh Cult approve the attribution of Zarvan's statues to the Ahriman. There are some examples of sacrifice for Ahriman in the story of snake-shoulder Zahak in Shahnameh and allegory of line & hunting in Kelileh-o-Demneh. Zarvani Satanism signs have been also manifested in the story of Dej Bahman and Yazdieh Texts.

Divan in Pahlavi texts are invisible, immortal and bodiless creatures that are in non-existence. Creation of Divan is the same as Ormazdi's in Minavi era. Their creation is composed of Divan Div Ahreman, Sardivan and those who are the source of destructiveness and extinction. This Ahreman creation is in direct contradiction to Ahura one composed of Ormazd, Emshaspand & Gods. In Pahlavi texts, Hezarandiv – known and nameless – are mentioned after Divan Div and Sardivan that can be categorized into five groups of old Gods, enemies and invaders, human reprehensible characteristics, abnormal humans and destructive elements of nature. Based on these texts, human fights against Divan in his soul and body through good spirit and believing in Mazdisnaism. By the end of the world, all minor Divs will be ruined by Soushian's prayers and Sardivan will be extinct by Emshaspandan, while greediness Dive will be either killed by Soroush or hurled into the hell along with Divan Div Ahreman.