جمیله اخیانی

Tarikh-e Beyhaghi (Beyhaghi’s History) is a seminal work in Persian literature and historiography. Fayyaz dedicated his life to correcting and improving this text. In 2009, a revised edition of the work edited by Yahagghi and Seyyedi was published. The primary advantage of this new edition was the detailed introduction, annotations, and supplementary materials, which greatly facilitated the work of readers and researchers. However, the editors had made numerous unjustified interventions in the text, to the extent that this benefit was largely overshadowed by the distortion of the original work of such great significance. It was anticipated that after more than a decade since the initial publication and appearance of numerous scholarly articles on the topic, many of the problems would have been addressed in the new edition. Regrettably, the 2022 edition, which claimed to incorporate "complete revision, additions, and corrections", failed to live up to these expectations as only a few of the numerous issues were rectified. Due to the impracticality of addressing all the flaws of this editorial effort in a single article, the present work examined select problems under the following headings: "Departure from the normative contextual meaning", "Disregard for Bayhaghi's stylistic features", "Ignoring the frequency of evidence", "Unjustified textual changes", "Unsupported readings of the text", and "Neglect of literary sensibilities in text correction".

One of the important subjects in Khaghani's Divan is the praise of the Ka'beh, its description is reflected in six long poems of his Divan. One of the most beautiful of these descriptions is the description of the Kaaba as a "seven makeup pens" Bride. The term "seven makeup pen" most commonly used in Khaghani's poems. Cultures have brought this term to mean "having full makeup" and what is called today "seven pens makeup" and considered it to include hana, vasmeh, sormeh, sorkhab, sefidab, zarak, and ghalieh. Commentators of Khaghani, in the description of the mentioned verses, have only mentioned the same seven elements of makeup found in the cultures. Since Khaghani is a poet of precise details, it can be assumed that he had similarities in mind in describing the Ka'beh as a Bride with full makeup. The issue of the present article is, what meaning or justification did bring this attribute for the Ka'beh have in Khaghani's mind. The results of the investigation of this issue show that first of all, the meaning of "seven makeup pens" about the bride or lover is not only facial makeup; it also includes decorating hair, wearing beautiful and expensive clothes, using ornaments, use of perfume and sitting in the Hejleh and secondly, Khaghani has adapted parts of the house of the Kaaba with the usual makeup of the bride and has considered them as the complete makeup of the Ka'be.

Khāqāni’s poetry stands out in Persian poetry for its abundance of images, interpretations and concepts which makes his poems difficult to understand and  explain. Though, there have been valuable researches explaining the much more complicated aspects of the poems of this renowned Persian poet, there are still a great number of expressions and interpretations in his poems which have not been understood accurately. The hypothesis behind the present study is that part of the difficulty in understanding Khāqāni’s poetry is the phenomenon of linguistic interference. As one of the consequences of bilingualism, linguistic interferences refers to the (unconscious) influence of the speaker's mother tongue on her/his second language. It also includes the presence of regional beliefs and cultural characteristics in the speaker's speech and writing in second language. Based on the aforementioned hypothesis, the present study focuses on words, sentences, interpretations and idioms in Khāqāni’s poetry which could be understood only by considering their Turkish counterpart. Considering that Khāqāni is from Azerbaijan, and his poetry is written in Persian; there have been many historical discussions about the language of Azerbaijan in his time (12 AD). Away from such considerations, this study solely focuses on his own text to investigate the complications and problems in Khāqāni’s poetry, some of which are due to the poet's linguistic interference.

Khaghani's poems are one of the most difficult and the most complex Persian poems, and many commentaries have been written on these poems since long ago. Much has been said about the Factors of this complexity and what has caused the difficulty of understanding his poems accurately, and many efforts have been made to solve these difficulties. Despite this and despite the valuable efforts of commentators and Khaghani scholars, the knot of some verses of Khaghani's poems remains unsolved and the meanings provided by commentators for these verses do not seem convincing. Some of these ambiguities are related to Khaghani's special way of making words and combinations, and others are related to his special way of using words, verbs, phrases, etc., which has created a amazing style but the ambiguity of some of his other verses is due to their incorrect reading. In this article, we have tried to resolve the ambiguity of some verses of his poems with the help of evidence from Persian literature and evidence from Khaghani's poetry and in one verse by using one of the using one of the parallel descriptive texts. Based on this, we are going to explain some verses whose meaning remains unclear despite the explanations of the commentators. Also, by correcting the reading of a verse that has become ambiguous due to misreading, we try to provide an acceptable meaning for it. 

Metonymies are formed based on the normal events of people's lives in every era; Therefore, a metonymy that was used at a certain time can become ambiguous later. Many of the metonymies that are used in classical texts of Persian literature and are not possible to understand easily were definitely familiar to the audience in their time. The metonymy of "cat in the bag" is also of the same kind, and it seems that its meaning is not accurately understood due to the less visible behavior related to it. The metonymy of "cat in the bag" is also of the same kind. The meanings presented for this metonymy in Persian culture mostly revolve around the axis of "wile and cunning". Seyyed Jafar Shahidi also mentioned the same meaning for it in the description of the words and problems of Divan Anvari; While a close examination of the bits in which this phrase is used, shows that the meaning presented for the phrase is not correct; In addition, its use is not only ironic; Rather, similes and metaphors are used as rhetorical elements in the works of Persian poets. In the present article, while explaining the mentioned metonymy and its possible origin, using in-text clues as well as evidence from Persian poetry, we try to present its correct meaning and show other rhetorical uses of the phrase "cat in a bag ". Based on this, the meaning of this phrase in all three of its rhetorical forms revolves around "having or not having power and ability".

There is no doubt that Hafez's poem is a multi-layered and interpretable poem, and this issue causes the reader of the poem to seek a more meaning behind the appearance of words and sentences; But this subject sometimes immerses the reader in the virtual and semantic space of the poem so much that it makes him unaware of the poetic image that is placed in the appearance of the verse and deprives him of the pleasure of understanding the artistic image of poetry. This is quite tangible about this Hafiz verse: "If the head can be placed on the ground of the beloved threshold, a shout of pride can be raised to the sky". In this verse, because the meaning is almost certain and that is submission to the beloved and at the same time having a sense of pride and honor, the true meaning of the sentences and propositions presented in the verse is no longer considered how it is possible for someone while his head is on the ground he can shout at the same time. Scholars of Hafez's poetry, like readers, have been overwhelmed by the spiritual atmosphere of the verse and have not paid attention to this point. In the present article, while examining the background of the word "Golbang" in Khaghani's poem, we mean the verse of Hafez. According to the present study, this verse is a verse of praise that describes the drum that is playing in the court.
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Imagery is considered as one of the most important artistic aspects in the literariness of any work of art. This becomes more important in narrative poetry because, if depicted properly, it will encourage the audience and create an emotional response in him to hear the rest of the narration. One of the famous stories of Persian classical literature is the story of Bahram Gur, which is represented both in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and Nezami's Haft-Peykar. In this article, we have compared the rhetorical imagery concerning this story in the two aforementioned works. To this end, we have examined and compared the imagery created by the two poets in the two categories of “imagery describing actions” and “imagery depicting the setting”. The result of this study shows that, concerning imagery describing actions, there are more action-based and dynamic images in the story of Bahram Gur in Shahnameh than that of Haft-peykar due to the narrative pace of events and actions as well as the high frequency of verbs. With regard to the imagery depicting the settings, Ferdowsi’s version presents more adventurous and plausible images than those created by Nezami. However, images of feasting and battlefield settings are abundantly portrayed in both works.

One of the most common motives for ancient magic and medicine was the belief in mysterious properties of the universe element. Believers of this knowledge would investigate the universe’s elements (from animal body parts to numbers and letters), their properties, and their effects on universe creatures and phenomena. They used their findings in various fields such as medicine, fortune-telling, dream interpretation, weather forecasting, Alchemy, magic, and talisman. These beliefs were also manifested in ordinary people’s life and ideology which is traceable in the context of their contemporary stories. The mysterious nature of some of the Persian stories can be also attributed to this knowledge. Adventures such as Simorgh and his magical and therapeutic actions, Rostam's battle with Div-e Sepid, Key Khosrow's magical actions, etc. are among the mythological stories in Shahnameh, in which the beliefs related to this knowledge have had a significant reflection. In the present study, we shed new light on the topic based on parallel texts, along with mythological and allegorical stories such as Nozhat Nameh Alaei, Ajayeb almakhluqat, Javaher Nameh Nezami and AlAbniyeh an Haqaqeyeq AlAdviyeh. These works contain information about the mysterious properties of elements. From this point of view, literary works written in two genres of magic and common medicine were analyzed in relation to four categories of animals, plants, stones/metals, and noises/voices. We also tried to show the roots of some of these magical, scientific, and folklore practices.

Khaghani’s poems are one of the most complicated Persian poems. One of the neglected reasons behind this complication is the phenomenon of "unconscious linguistic interference", which appears in the works of bilingual poets and writers. Khaghani is from Sharvan in Azerbaijan and it is said that his mother tongue was Azerbaijani. Unconscious linguistic interference in Khaghani's poetry refers to the application of the themes, patterns, and rules in Azerbaijani which leads to the unfamiliar linguistic forms in his poetry. This article tries to investigate the unconscious linguistic interference in Khaghani's poetry in two types: terms and phrases which do not have Persian equivalents, and those that have Persian equivalents, but their Persian equivalents are different from that of Azerbaijani. Paying attention to this phenomenon will make it possible to get the exact meaning of many of Khaghani's poems and solve many of the ambiguities in his poetry.

The book "Poets of Khorasan Literary Field" is one of the literary excerpts written by Dr. Nasrollah Emami for a course of the same name in the undergraduate course of Persian literature. Given the author's background in academic excerpts, the reader expects a well-groomed book to increase students' enthusiasm for further study of one of the most important areas of Persian poetry, but this expectation is not met. In the present article, the most significant drawbacks of the mentioned book include: not so suitable notes for poems, incomplete selection of poems, incorrect explanations for some verses, changing the tastes of words from poems without any explanation about them, deleting some of the sources referred to in the book description, inadequate, inaccurate or unnecessary description, and editorial and writing flaws have been examined. By presenting these problems, the author hopes that the authors of academic literary excerpts will pay more attention to their writings and dress up the book from the mentioned problems in the subsequent editions.

The simultaneous use of several aesthetic elements in speech is a phenomenon that has a long history in the Persian language it is mentioned with these titles "Conflict of images", "Disturbing images" and .... This is considered inappropriate and reduces the originality of the poem because it increases the volume of the images in the text beyond its linguistic capacities, but in Hafez's poetry, many verses can be found in which, despite the simultaneous use of several rhetorical elements in illustration, not only has there not been a conflict of images; Rather, due to the convergence of the images, the meaning of the multi-layered bit and its beauty and imagination have increased In addition, two symmetrical images are finally created, which are not visible at first glance. This rhetorical art in Hafez's poetry, which we have called the "symmetry of images" in the face of the term antagonism of images, has escaped the view of Hafez's rhetoricians and commentators; Hafez has received so much attention that it can be considered as one of his stylistic features. Of course, the extraction of the above-mentioned rhetorical-expressive elements, separately or in duplicate in a verse, has a long history in Hafez's poetry; But this is the first time that their combined form has been introduced as a prism that has at least four side and eventually forms two parallel images.

Kelileh and Demneh has received special attention as a book of wisdom and politics throughout history. Nasrollah Monshi’s translation of the book into Persian in the sixth century turned it into one of the most important works of prose in Persian literature and a model for literary writers, and outdid other translations of the same book. The significance of this translation has made its numerous republications, edition, and correction inevitable. In Iranian academia, the edition and correction by Mojtaba Minovi has gained a popular foothold. Despite Minovi's significant contribution to improving the quality of the book, there are some phrases whose meaning is ambiguous and confuse readers. This study examines some of these phrases in the first step and subsequently offers corrections by drawing on textual parallels, the author's style, textual evidence from other parts of the book, and evidence from classical Persian texts. This study suggests that distortion, word shift, grammatical errors cause ambiguity in the selected phrases.

Khaghani is one of the greatest composers of Persian poetry who has been described as a perplexing poet to his vast knowledge and using it in poetry, unprecedented illustrations and strange combinations. Three writers of our time, namely Ali Abdul Rasuli, Zia-od-Din Sajjadi and Mir-Jalaloddin Kazzazi, have worked hard to correct his divan. Sajjadi's correction has received more attention in academic circles due to the presentation of verse versions, but two other corrections have also retained their value and have helped researchers. Despite the valuable efforts of these professors and other scholars who have corrected verses from Khaghani, there are still verses in the corners of Khaghani's divan that do not satisfy the reader with his current form and Khaghani does not seem to have composed them in this way. In this article, five of these verses in Khaghani's poems have been examined and an attempt has been made to provide suggestions for correcting them after explaining their inaccuracy or inadequacy in the current form. From these verses, one verse has been corrected by analogy and four verses have been corrected using the edition of Abd al-Rasuli, as well as the duplicates recorded in Sajjadi's correction.

Selection of excerpts from ancient texts and explanation of their difficulties in the form of academic excerpts for teaching in the field of Persian language and literature is one of the works that has increased in recent years. Accurately selecting parts of texts and explaining their difficulties can help students better understand ancient texts and of course, the preparation of such books requires a great deal of expertise and a great deal of care and patience. Shahnameh's book (1) Shahriyar Namvarnameh published by Samt Publications is the result of the attention of prominent Shahnameh scholar Sajjad Aydenlo who has provided a well-deserved book for students. Despite the many benefits of this book including selecting three stories from the Shahnameh instead of one, arranging the contents of the book in a decent volume for one semester, designing important topics related to Ferdowsi and Shahnameh based on the latest Shahnameh researches and..., there are some shortcomings in its compilation that have been addressed in the present article. These deficiencies include the shortcomings of choosing the verses for the excerpts of the stories, the failures to explain and explain the verses, and the shortcomings of the version used in the excerpts, and the lack of explanation about them. The author hopes that by revising these shortcomings, this valuable book will become more disciplined.

"Other" is a concept related to individual identity, and individual identity only makes sense when it is weighed against others. The concept of the "other" is the result of the epistemology and ontology of modern man, which has a different life and experience from that of ancient man. This concept entered literature with the theory of the logic of Bakhtin's dialogue and opened a new window to literary works. One type of literature in which this concept can be explored and has not yet been considered is the "parable", which leads to the omission of the "other" due to the lack of dialogue. Proverbs have been widely used as a linguistic feature and literary genre in the works of Persian writers; but there are those whose words have become proverbs. Sadi is one of these writers. By accurately recognizing the specific capacities of the parable, he presents many of his words as parables and in this way conveys his views to others. In the present study, while analyzing The Proverb structure, its features are related to the elimination of "other" such as: "using proximity magic", "addressing", "warning", "using the names of famous people", "using humor", and ... Sadi's method of use of this type of literature is examined in order to eliminate the "other" and induce speech artistically to others in Golestan and Bustan.

Nozhatnāmeh ‘Alā’i by Shahmardan ibn Abi al-Khair Razi, az one of the first Persian encyclopedia, belongs to the most important class of prose writings. Farhang Jahanpur edited and published this work in 1362/1983, but due to the importance of the text and due to the problems and the deficiencies in it, it needs to be reedited. The present paper in addition to introducing the Nozhatnāmeh as the first encyclopedia containing original source of information and explaining important aspects of it; we have shown some deficiencies such as not referring to all existing editions, relying on inappropriate editions, lack of accuracy of some editions, ignoring stylistic characteristics of the text resulting in distancing from originality, lack of loyalty in recording, misreading the text and remove an important word or term from the text, etc. Additionally, by introducing ten new manuscripts from the book and representing the importance of these editions in clarifying the ambiguities in the text, then the necessity of presenting a more proper correction of the book is emphasized.

One of the issues raised in the study of ancient texts is the problem of distortion, and perhaps this is one of the important factors in creating ambiguity in these texts. Detecting and correcting these distortions can provide readers a more readable text and make it easier to access the information or knowledge presented in these works. One of the famous Persian works is Tarikh-e Beyhaqi (history of Bayaqi) that, despite the publication of valuable corrections, the exact meaning of some of its terms and expressions is not yet clear. One of these expressions is ‘qafa daridan’, which both the commentators and expositors of this work, as well as those who who have already discussed this issue, have accepted it in the same way and all have defined it as a metaphor for ‘discredit and disgrace’. The question of this article is whether this term could have the correct meaning in the same way or is its original form somewhat different and distorted? Based on this, it has been shown with the help of evidence and reasons that the present form of the term and the interpretations that the distinguished commentators have made cannot be correct. Then, with the help of the text of the Tarikh-e Beyhaqi as well as evidence from other ancient Persian manuscripts, the correct form is presented.

Excerpts from precious texts of ancient literature are among the researches that have increased in recent years. Careful selection of sections of text selected as a course and explaining their difficulties can help students better understand of ancient texts..The Book of Four Masters by Dr. Kazem Dezfoulian, published by Samt Publishing for the poetry of Iraqi Literature, is one of those excerpts whose publication unfortunately does not meet the expectations of the academic community. Choosing the wrong poems, misread some verses and misinterpreting them, Incorrect or incomplete explanation of some verses, not paying attention to the incorrect recording of some words and the lack of explanation about them, lots of typing mistakes, and … are among the most important shortcomings mentioned above that keeps the book away from the sophistication expected of a college textbook. In the present article, part of the book's many shortcomings is discussed under the heading of "disorganized" and "inexplicit" and the author hopes that with the attention of textbook writers, more attention will be paid to overseeing academic publishing centers and fixing these bugs in future releases.

One of the attributes of Sa’di is his exact recognition of the Persian language and its efficiencies and the maximum use of the capacities of this language; but this exploitation is so artistic that the reader is enchanted fluidity and eloquence of speech and does not understand its artistic arrangement. One of these performances is the use of conflicting verbs in sonnets, a point that has not been thoroughly analyzed yet and enjoying the beauty of Sa'di's words doubles. This article examines the current contradiction in all Sa’di’s sonnets, and, in addition to identifying and categorizing its types and subcategories, Sa’di's subtle delights in using this array, such as bringing the opposite of a verb from several verbs that are semantically related, are used to synonymize verb, and ... along with the frequency of all the pseudo-couples that are used interchangeably in Sa'di's lyrics, along with their frequencies.

Xezr (the prophet) is one of the famous name in Persian literature that appears as a prophet, a patron, a beloved, a master and etc. in Persian poetry. Though the poets’ approaches to the Xezr story are different but they have a positive common point of view about Xezr and his eternal life, but this story has another concept in Saeb’ poems. He manipulates in this story and separates Xezr from his former mysterious figure and employs him for poetic contents by his special technique, but what distinguishes him from the former poets is his negative concept of this story that it hasn’t been paid attention yet. In this article all of the Saeb poetic contents about Xezr story have been gathered, sorted and studied according to descriptive-analytic method and on this basis the difference of Saeb look to Xezr personality and the characters of the story with formers attitudes and the reasons of this negative attitude have been analyzed.

Present diachronic and synchronic study deals with the stylistics of inflectional features of Persian prose in Bayhaqi History and then the results of the study are compared with the inflectional features of prose in modern Persian. In the comparison of morphological features of the Persian prose in these two periods، it has seen that the Persian language has undergone many morphological changes. These developments are both in inflectional and word formation systems of the language. Inflectional system of Persian turns to be simple during this period and prefixal verbs have developed in three different ways: 1. changing to simple verbs، 2. deleting the prefixal verbs، and 3. keeping the prefixal verbs. On the other hand in these two periods، the number and frequency of simple and prefixal verbs are reduced and they are replaced by compound verbs. This study also demonstrates that some inflectional affixes in the contemporary Persian were free morphemes in classic Persian; also some inflectional affixes do not have their early function and the structure of inflected word turned to be opaque in contemporary Persian. The results of the present study can be used in historical studies of Persian، determining the process of historical developments of Persian and preparing of historical linguistic resources of the language.