حسین آرویی

Melon (Cucumis melo L.) is an annual plant from Cucurbitaceae family and has a very high diversity in Iran and the world. The Khatooni variety is a melon variety widely cultivated in Khorasan Razavi Province, north-east of Iran. The growth and yield of agricultural crops are affected by environmental stresses. Drought stress is one of the most critical environmental stresses that limit crop production, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Salicylic acid has diverse physiological roles in plants, including improving plant growth and photosynthesis. Some researches have indicated that watermelon growth and yield may increase by applying salicylic acid under drought stress conditions. Another criterion for improvement in using water resources is the use of superabsorbent polymers. Bentonite has the ability to absorb water and minerals and prevent the leaching of minerals in the soil. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the role of salicylic acid and bentonite and investigate their interaction in mitigating drought stress and increase the quality and yield of melon.

In order to investigate the effect of bentonite superabsorbent and salicylic acid on Khatooni melon under drought stress conditions, a split factorial experiment based on a randomized complete block design with four replications was performed in two years. Irrigation factor was applied at 3 levels: 100, 80 or 60% of water requirement. Foliar spraying of salicylic acid was done at 70 or 100 ppm when the fruits had a diameter of 10 cm, and repeated after 20 days. Bentonite was applied at two levels (0 and 0.15% by weight per ha). Bentonite was mixed with the upper 30 cm of the soil depth. In each experimental unit, the distance between plants was 70 cm on each row and the rows distanced 3 m apart.  In order to prevent water penetration between adjacent plots a 6 m distance was considered between experimental units, i.e. plots. Stem length, leaf area, chlorophyll content, relative water content, total soluble solids, and fruit yield were measured. Minitab software was used for statistical analysis. Comparison of means was performed using Duncan's multiple range test at a 5% probability level, and Excel software was used to draw the graphs.                                                         

A decreasing trend in stem length with increasing drought stress was observed in the studied treatments (Table 2). Mean comparison of triple interaction effects showed that the application of bentonite and salicylic acid in different irrigation treatments increased stem length (Table 2). The lowest stem length (194.36 cm) was obtained in the presence of 60% water requirement, absence of bentonite and salicylic acid, indicating a 31.2% decrease compared to the control (in the presence of 100% water requirement, absence of bentonite and salicylic acid). The highest stem length (346.89 cm) was recorded in the presence of 100% water requirement, bentonite application, and 100 ppm of salicylic acid, i.e. a 22.7% increase in stem length compared to the control. With increasing drought stress, leaf area decreased, so that in severe stress (60% water requirement) and moderate stress (80% water requirement) conditions, leaf area decreased by 28.47% and 23.76%, respectively, compared to the control. Results showed that with increasing drought stress, the content of chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll significantly decreased. The lowest amount of chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll was recorded in the presence of 60% water requirement and absence of salicylic acid, i.e. 26.0, 36.6 and 28.6% decreases, respectively, compared to the control (in the presence of 100% water requirement and absence of salicylic acid). With increasing drought stress, the relative leaf water content decreased significantly. In each irrigation treatment by bentonite application and salicylic acid, the relative leaf water content increased. The highest (88.19%) and the lowest (75.95%) relative leaf water content was recorded in the combined treatment of 100% water requirement, bentonite and 100 ppm of salicylic acid and the combined treatment of 60% water requirement, without bentonite and salicylic acid, respectively. With increasing drought stress, the amount of total soluble solids increased. No significant difference was observed between 80% and 60% water requirement treatments. However, the highest amount of total soluble solids was recorded when the melon plants were exposed to the 60% water requirement treatment. The results showed that with increasing drought stress, fruit yield decreased significantly. Under each of the irrigation treatments fruit yield increased significantly in the presence of bentonite and salicylic acid, particularly 100 ppm salicylic acid.

Based on the results of this research, it can be concluded that under water deficit conditions, using bentonite and salicylic acid are capable to mitigate the effects of drought stress on melon plants, mainly through reducing water consumption, leading to increased fruit yield and quality.

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) is a widely recognized product with high demand, nutritional value, and export potential worldwide. Since the ultimate goal of agricultural production systems is to maximize plant yield, providing sufficient water to the plant is one of the most critical factors influencing yield. Therefore, investigating the effects of water limitation is an essential and undeniable necessity. On the other hand, deficit irrigation has been introduced as an approach to increase water productivity. Therefore, it is essential to consider the effects of this water-saving method on plant production, which highlights the need for further research. Deficit irrigation involves supplying only a portion of the plant's water requirements, while regulated deficit irrigation is a specific type of deficit irrigation that can be applied in various ways, such as irrigation based on growth stages, or allocating water to stages that are more sensitive to drought. It is important to recognize that plant response to water deficit depends on several factors, including climatic conditions, plant type, the intensity and method of deficit irrigation application, soil condition, and management practices.

In order to determine the effect of deficit irrigation and regulated deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity of the watermelon, an experiment in the form of randomized complete blocks with 8 treatments including three irrigation levels of 100, 70 and 50 % of the plant's water requirement (evapotranspiration estimated by the FAO-Penman-Monteith method) and 5 regulated deficit irrigation levels including 50% of the water requirement in the stages of seedling, vine, flowering, fruit expansion and fruit maturity were carried out with three replications under black plastic mulch, during 2020-2022, in the Research and Education Center of Agriculture and Natural Resources in the south of Kerman province. Irrigation as the main plot at three levels of 100, 70 and 50% of water requirement and mulching at three levels of crushed date palm leaf, black plastic and no mulch, as the sub-plot, were considered. Crimson B 34 watermelon seeds produced by Seminis company, were planted on January 2021, in plots with the size of 13.5 × 7 m, on furrows and ridges planting system (the width of furrows and ridges were 0.5 and 4 meters, respectively). After planting, bow-shaped wires were put on the planting rows and a transparent plastic was placed as a tunnel on them. In the first year, the total depth of the irrigations in aforesaid treatments were respectively 444, 321, 237, 413, 389, 435, 345 and 425, and in the second year 427, 303, 223, 395, 373, 416, 331 and 405 mm.

The results showed that the highest and lowest yield were observed in full irrigation and irrigation 50 % (60.1 and 16.3 t ha-1 respectively). Among the regulated deficit irrigation treatments, irrigation 50% at the seedling stage was the closest to full irrigation, and the irrigation 50 % at the fruit expansion stage had the lowest yield. The highest water productivity belonged to the irrigation 50 % in the seedling and vine stages (15.9 and 1.15 kg m-3 respectively). Irrigation 50% at fruit maturity stage despite half irrigation, improved Qualitative characteristics such as soluble solids, vitamin C, dry matter, lycopene and fruit taste.

Applying deficit irrigation led to a significant decrease in watermelon yield compared to full irrigation (control). Water productivity remained nearly constant, and there was no significant improvement in the quality of the edible part. However, treatments involving regulated deficit irrigation, such as irrigation during the seedling stage, showed similar yield to full irrigation, while the 50% irrigation during the vine stage resulted in higher water productivity. Additionally, 50% irrigation during the fruit maturity stage produced superior fruit quality compared to the control. Overall, regulated deficit irrigation yielded better results than deficit irrigation due to less yield reduction, increased water productivity, and improved fruit quality, especially under water-restricted conditions. Finally, it is recommended that milder intensities of deficit irrigation that seem to have more favorable results in this plant should be investigated in the next studies.

Sugars are one of the important components in the human diet, along with fats and proteins, which provide about 60-70% of their energy. Stevia is one of the most important medicinal plants with high antioxidant properties, obvious sugar characteristics, and without calories, which can replace sugars extracted from other sources. One of the features of this sweetener is that it is very useful for diabetics due to its lack of absorption in the digestive system. On the other hand, it is suitable for the diet of obese people due to its non-caloric nature. Sucrose is the transportable form of photosynthetic products, i.e. carbohydrates, in plants. Sucrose foliar spraying is important for the quick supply of compounds needed by plants.

This factorial experiment was carried out based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications at Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University from 2014 to 2015. Evaluated treatments consisted of different concentrations of a sucrose solution (0, 2.5, 5, and 10%). Thus, the mentioned material was diluted in solvents such as methanol 15%, boric acid (3 ppm), and acetic acid (1 ppm). Treatments were sprayed on plants at 10-day intervals until plants started the flowering stage. Some parameters, such as total chlorophyll, carotenoids, total phenol, total flavonoid, antioxidant activity, steviozide, and ribodiozide contents were measured at the beginning of flowering.

The results of the analysis of variance showed that the simple effect of the solvent type and sucrose concentration on all studied traits at the probability level of 0.01 and the interaction effect of the treatments on all traits, except for the amount of ribodiozide, were significant at the probability level of 0.05 and on the amount of steviozide at the probability level of 0.01. The average data comparison results showed that the amount of total chlorophyll in 10% sucrose concentration was significantly higher than the other sucrose concentrations. There was a significant difference between different concentrations of sucrose in terms of carotenoid content so that the highest (10.72 mg/g fresh weight) and the lowest (9.56 mg/g fresh weight) levels were recorded at concentrations of 5% and 0% sucrose, respectively. The amount of carotenoid in the methanol solvent (11.99 mg/g fresh weight) was significantly higher than in the other solvents, namely boric acid, acetic acid, and distilled water (its lowest amount). The amount of flavonoid was significantly different between different concentrations of sucrose and also in different solvents. Five percent sucrose concentration (10.82 mg of quercetin per gram of dry weight) and zero percent sucrose concentration produced the lowest (9.31 mg of quercetin per gram of dry weight) flavonoids. Based on the results of the data, the highest and lowest flavonoid contents were obtained in methanol (11.51 mg quercetin per gram of dry weight), boric acid (10.74 mg quercetin per gram of dry weight), acetic acid (9.42 mg quercetin per gram of dry weight) ), and distilled water (8.32 mg of quercetin per gram of dry weight) solutions, respectively. The amount of total phenol in the 5% sucrose concentration (19.54 mg of gallic acid per gram of dry weight) was significantly higher than in other concentrations. The results of comparing the average data showed a significant difference between different solvents in terms of the amount of total phenol so that the methanol solvent (23.07 mg of gallic acid per gram of dry weight) and the distilled water solvent (13.47 mg of gallic acid per gram of dry weight) contained the highest the lowest total phenol contents, respectively. The results obtained from this research showed a significant difference between different concentrations of sucrose in terms of the amount of antioxidants so that the highest (85.71%) and lowest (62.38%) amounts were found in five and zero percent concentrations, respectively. Based on variance analysis data, there was a significant difference in the amount of antioxidants in different solvents, and the highest and the lowest amounts were observed in methanol (90.59%) and distilled water (69.87%) solvents, respectively. Based on the obtained results, the methanol solvent had the highest (14.01%) and the distilled water solvent produced the lowest (11.27%) amounts of steviozide. Based on the comparison of average data, the lowest (5.77%) and the highest (13.01%) amounts of steviozide were measured at concentrations of 10% and 5% sucrose, respectively. According to the results of comparing the average concentrations of different sucrose levels on the amount of ribodiozide, the concentrations of 0% and 5% sucrose led to the lowest and the highest amounts of ribodiozide, respectively. According to the effect of the solvent, the highest and lowest amounts of ribodiozide belonged to methanol and distilled water solvents, respectively. Based on the mean comparison analysis, the most optimum amount of photosynthetic and phytochemical parameters were related to the concentration of 5% sucrose while the other concentrations were in the next orders. Moreover, the highest and the lowest optimum amounts were recorded in the methanol (15%), boric acid (3 ppm), acetic (1 ppm), and distilled water (control) solvents, respectively.

The studied carbon sources had a significant effect on many investigated traits. An increase in the concentration of assimilated carbohydrates as a result of sucrose application at a concentration of 5% with the methanol solvent may increase the availability of respiratory intermediates, which results in the reduction of non-photochemical energy loss. The occurrence of these biochemical phenomena caused by the consumption of intermediate substances ultimately increases the photosynthetic efficiency and improves the accumulation of photosynthetic substances, as well as the synthesis of secondary metabolites. Finally, it can be concluded that the application of sucrose with its appropriate solvent (methanol) could decrease or replace the absolute requirement for carbon source in the environment.

The ever-increasing tendency to the use of medicinal plants in the world has grown concerns about their cultivation and production processes. As medicinal plants are more compatible with the nature, special interest and attention has recently been given to herb therapy, and use of medicinal plants, being limited by the rise of pharmaceutical drugs, has become again common and widespread due to a number of reasons. Nigella sativa L. is one of the herbs that has a variety of uses and has been being used in iran’s traditional medicine since old times. Today this plant is considered as one of the most important kinds of medicine. Therefore, it is of great importance to conduct some researches on the herbs around the country due to different ecological requirements. N. sativa belonging to buttercup family, with the scientific name of Ranunculaceae, is an annual, dicotyledonous, herbaceous plant. In several studies, N. sativa has been reported to have anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, strengthening of immune system, and anti-histamine and oil extract properties. Furthermore, several effects such as lowering blood sugar, lipids, and hypertension, excretion of bile and uric acid, protection of liver, kidney and cardiovascular tissues as well as anti-seizure, anti-cancer, anti-microbial and anti-parasitic effects related to this plant have been reported. The aim of the present study is to improve the yield and yield components and oil of medicinal plant N. sativa by anti-transpiration compounds under drought stress conditions.                       

An experiment was conducted at Research Station,Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, in 2012-2013. The research was performed using a split plot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The irrigation intervals (8 and 16 days) in main plots and anti-transpiration compounds of chitosan (0.25, 0.5 and 1%), Plantogopsyllium mucilage (0.5, 1 and 1.5%) and arabic gum (0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 %) were put in subplots with three replications. Also, the distance between the main plots in each block and distance between the two blocks were assigned as 100 cm and 200 cm, respectively; so that the moisture content of a plot had no effect on the adjacent plots. Planting date was April16 and planting was performed by hand in 0.5cm-deep furrows. Throughout the growing season, anti-transpiration compounds were applied concurrently with the imposition of drought stress, administered weekly at sunset until the flowering stage. Subsequently, yield, yield components, and oil content were measured.

Results showed that irrigation intervals had significant effects on all studied characteristics with the exception of 1000 seed weight. ncreasing irrigation intervals reduced percentage yield and yield components and oil of black cumin grains. Anti-transpirants compounds did have significant effects on percentage of oil and yield and yield components of black cumin grains. There were significant difference between different anti-transpirants compounds in terms of oil and yield components yield and of black cumin grains. The 8 days irrigation interval produced more grain yield compared with 16 days irrigation intervals (621.56 vs. 484.23 kg/ha). The highest oil (27.74%) and lowest (21.74%), respectively, at treatment anti-transpirants compound chitosan1 percent With 8 days irrigation interval and gam arabic 0.25 percent was obtained with 16 days irrigation interval and chitosan stimulating abscisic acid synthesis in the treated plant would result in stomatal closure, reduction of stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and water content. They also pointed out that the anti-transpiration effect of chitosan was because of its stimulatory effect in increasing abscisic acid concentration in the treated leaves of bean plant. As the above compounds are natural and biodegradable, as well as safer and less expensive than other chemical anti-transpiration compounds, they can serve as a good alternative to the chemical compounds. Cognition and expertise in water relations of plant and drought stress tolerance is considered as the main program in agriculture and the ability to withstand this stress is of great economic importance.

The anti-transpiration compounds led to significant changes in terms of all the studied traits compared to the control, indicating the effectiveness of theses natural compounds. Providing the appropriate conditions, 1% chitosan treatment can enhance the yield under drought stress. Spraying by arabic gum did not improve the growth conditions. According to this experiment, 1% chitosan treatment and 1.5% Plantago psyllium mucilage is considered the most appropriate strategy to enhance the yield of Nigella sativa under drought stress.

In this study, the effects of different levels of biofertilizer containing phosphate solubilizing bacteria on aerobic digestion of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) sludge were investigated in vitro under a completely randomized design. Three experimental treatments including aerobic digestion of Nile tilapia solid sludge without adding biofertilizer (control) and aerobic digestion of solid sludge with adding biofertilizer containing phosphate solubilizing bacteria (Pseudomonas putida strain P13 and Pantoea agglomerans strain P5) at levels of 0.1% and 0.2% were used in triplicate. The aerobic digestion containers with a capacity of 1 L (9 containers) were kept in a shaker incubator at 30ºC for 28 days. The results showed that the concentration of phosphate, potassium, and iron nutrients on the 14th day of the experiment in the biofertilizer treatments were significantly higher than the control, but their concentrations on the 28th day in the biofertilizer-0.1% treatment were significantly higher than other treatments )p<0/05). The manganese concentration on the 14th and 28th days in the biofertilized-0.1% treatment was higher than other treatments (p<0/05). The results of the present study indicated that the aerobic digestion of fish sludge for two weeks with adding biofertilizer containing phosphate solubilizing bacteria (P. putida strain P13 and P .agglomerans strain P5) by counting 107 of each bacteria per mL (CFU/mL) at 0.1% improved the release and dissolution of nutrients.

This study with the aim of determining the effect of deficit irrigation and mulching on watermelon was conducted with a preliminary experiment in the form of split plots and a design of complete randomized blocks with three replications, in the Research and Education Center of Agriculture and Natural Resources in the south of Kerman province (Jiroft), in 2021‒2022. Drip irrigation as the main plot at three levels of 100, 70 and 50% of water requirement and mulching in three levels of crushed date palm leaf, black plastic and no mulch, as the sub-plot, were considered. As results demonstrate, the main and interaction effects of the treatments on stem length, leaf area, yield, water productivity, leaf relative water content, photosynthetic pigments, proline, total phenol, leaf superoxide dismutase enzyme and fruit length and width were significant. The main effects of irrigation and mulching on internode length, membrane stability index and vitamin C, and the main effect of the irrigation on the percentage of fruit dry matter, stem branches, and the main effect of mulching on fruit shape and soluble solids were significant. Fruit pH and total acidity, tasting and lycopene were not significantly affected by the treatments. The highest yield (60.1 ton/ha) was observed in the full irrigation and plastic mulch, and the highest water productivity (15.1 kg/m3) was recorded in the 70% irrigation and plastic mulch, but no significant difference with full irrigation and plastic and date palm leaves mulches. The findings showed that the effectiveness of plastic mulch on the watermelon growth and yield was higher with 100% and 70% irrigation compared to 50% irrigation. The date palm leaf mulch, despite being superior to the control in the full irrigation, had insignificant positive effects in deficit irrigation levels due to its high sodium content (1800 mg/kg).

Deficit irrigation has been mentioned as one of the effective techniques for increasing the water productivity of plants. Deficit irrigation of 50% caused a decrease in yield and water productivity of watermelon in Valencia region of Spain (Abdelkhalik et al., 2019). The role of mulching in compensating the negative effects of deficit irrigation has been confirmed in the literature (Diaz-Perez, 2023). This research aims at investigating the effects of deficit irrigation and mulching on the growth, yield and fruit quality of watermelon and the possibility of replacing plastic mulch with date palm leaf mulch.

Irrigation as the main plot at three levels of 100, 70 and 50% of water requirement and mulching at three levels of crushed date palm leaf, black plastic and no mulch, as the sub-plot, were considered. Crimson B 34 watermelon seeds produced by Seminis company, were planted on January 2021, in plots with the size of 13.5 × 7 m, on furrows and ridges planting system (the width of furrows and ridges were 0.5 and 4 meters, respectively). After planting, bow-shaped wires were put on the planting rows and a transparent plastic was placed as a tunnel on them.

Analysis of variance of the plant growth, yield, water productivity, and some physiological and biological traits displayed that the main and interaction effects of treatments were significant. Some traits such as pH, titratable acidity, fruit taste and shape were not affected by the treatments. The main and interaction effects of the treatments on stem length, leaf area, yield, water productivity, leaf relative water content, photosynthetic pigments, proline, total phenol, leaf superoxide dismutase enzyme and fruit length and width were significant. The main effects of irrigation and mulching on internode length, membrane stability index and vitamin C, and the main effect of the irrigation on the percentage of fruit dry matter, stem branches, and the main effect of mulching on fruit shape and soluble solids were significant. Fruit pH and total acidity, tasting and lycopene were not significantly affected by the treatments. The highest yield (60.1 ton/ha) was observed in the full irrigation and plastic mulch, and the highest water productivity (15.1 kg/m3) was recorded in the 70% irrigation and plastic mulch, but no significant difference with full irrigation and plastic and date palm leaves mulches was obtained. Reducing the irrigation water from 100 to 70 and to 50% of crop evapotranspiration or ETc (estimated by the FAO-Penman-Monteith method) in all three types of the mulch led to a significant decreasing in yield (Y), which was caused by the occurrence of water stress. The first reduction in water use (i.e., from 100 to 70%) increased the water productivity (WP) even though not significantly, but the second reduction in water use (i.e., from 70 to 50%) significantly led to a decrease in WP.

Overall, the 100%ETc treatment with black plastic mulch will probably have the best result in terms of watermelon yield unless water shortage, water price, and irrigation cost are noticeable compared to the crop price. In this case, 70%ETc irrigation with black plastic will be a priority in terms of WP. Of course, the cost of mulching and its possible environmental consequences should be considered.

Sweet pepper is a rich source of essential vitamins and minerals. On the other hand, pepper fruit contains high levels of antioxidants and beneficial substances such as vitamin C, carotenoids and phenolic compounds. It also contains high concentrations of potassium. These compounds has nutritional and antioxidant capacity. Sweet pepper originated from the tropical region, which is sensitive to cold. Therefore, it is necessary to know the defense mechanism of the pepper plant against low temperatures. In this study, the effect of foliar application of salicylic acid and vermicompost on different cultivars of sweet pepper under cold stress has been studied.

The experimental design was a factorial split-plot experiment in a randomized complete block design with three replications in a greenhouse located in Mashhad in the crop year 1396 and 1397. Cultivation was performed hydroponically. The main factor of temperature treatment had two levels [9 ± 2°C (cold stress) and 23 ± 2°C (optimum)] and the sub factor consisting of two sweet pepper cultivars (green, yellow) and Different amounts of Salicylic acid (The dose of 0 μmol salicylic acid was used as control group, 200, 300 μmol) and vermicompost). Sampling of the plants at the end of the growing season, to measure the physiological characteristics and quality were randomly.

The results showed that there was no significant difference between different cultivars in most traits except vitamin C, beta-carotenoids and lycopene. Maximum dry matter (17.2g), TA (13.6 g l-1) in non-stress cold treatment, and soluble solids (5.03 brix),, carbohydrates(174.5 mg g-1), and anti-activity Oxidation (90.3%)  were obtained in cold stress treatment. Damage due to cold stress destroyed the structure of many membrane lipids and resulted in an increase in the amount of antioxidant compounds. Soluble solids are known to be key components in increasing cold resistance. An increase in the amount of soluble solids in winter is part of the plant's adaptation mechanism to cold. The highest yield of fruit per plant(740 g) was obtained in non-cold stress treatment plus salicylic acid 300 μmol. Because salicylic acid in plants improves yield and yield components. Maximum of flavonoids (159.4 mg g-1) was obtained in salicylic acid 200 μmol. Flavonoids are a large group of phenolic compounds in plants that increase their production in environmental stresses by increasing the activity of PAL enzyme. On the other hand, the use of salicylic acid as a stressor causes the production of a wide range of flavonoids. The highest amount of beta-carotene and lycopene were obtained in cold stress treatment, yellow cultivar, and salicylic 300 μmol. Decreased content of carotenoids under stress can be due to oxidation by active oxygen and damage to their structure. Increased photosynthetic pigments under SA treatment indicate the protective effect of this growth regulator on photosynthesis and photosynthetic pigments of stressed plants. Maximum vitamin C was obtained in cold stress treatment (140.7 mg 100 g-1, yellow cultivar (134.7 mg.100g-1), and salicylic 300 μmol (142.52 mg.100 g-1).

According to the results, the of the present study show that use of salicylic acid foliar application modulates the effect of cold stress on the physiological and functional parameters of sweet pepper so that SA can improve cold tolerance by regulating the activities of apoplastic antioxidative enzymes. Therefore, it is suggested that due to sudden changes in temperature due to climate change and the destructive effects of temperature stress, especially cold, on plants, more and more complete research should be done to identify the effects of these stresses and ways to deal with them.

 Light is the main environmental factor for plant growth and development. Different attributes of light such as intensity, quality and duration affect plant growth and productivity. Light spectrum of growing environment is a determinant factor for plant growth and photosynthesis. The photosynthetic reactions are directly affected by various light parameters including its spectrum and intensity. Photosystem I and II (PSI and PSII) in the electron transport chain of photosynthetic apparatus are involved in converting solar energy to chemical compounds in plants. It has been found that the PSII is sensitive to light quality. Using The OJIP test, we can investigate the efficiency of various biological phases of the electron transport system. Light sources such as metal-halide, fluorescent, high-pressure sodium, neon lamps and light-emitting diode (LED) can be used for production of plants in closed environments instead of sunlight. Manipulation of the light spectrum of the lamps could trigger potential benefits by enhancing plant growth. Nowadays, by using the LED technology, it is possible to study the physiological effect of different light spectra for optimization of growth conditions and for increase the production of plants in controlled environments. This research was conducted to investigate photosynthetic apparatus, growth parameters, stomatal characteristics, transpiration rate and essential oil content of Salvia officinalis under different light spectra.
 
 In this study, the effects of different light spectra were implemented and performed as a pot experiment using soilless media in the plant growth chamber based on a completely randomized design with 6 lighting spectra including White, Blue, Red and three combinations of R and B lights (R30:B70, R50:B50 and R70:B30) with three replications. The light intensity in all growth chambers was adjusted to photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 250 ±10 μmol m-2s-1 and light spectrum were monitored using a sekonic light meter (Sekonic C-7000, Japan). Growth condition was set at 14/10 h day/night cycles, 25/22oC day/night temperatures and 40% relative humidity. Three month following plant growth under different light spectra, the plants were evaluated for their growth parameters, stomatal characteristics (stomatal length, stomatal width, pore length or aperture) transpiration rate (E), relative water content (RWC), photosynthetic apparatus (evaluation of OJIP) and essential oil content. Data analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using IBM SAS software (Version 9.1) and the differences between means were assessed using Duncan’s multiple range tests at p≤ 0.05.
 
 The results showed that the stomata characteristics, photosynthetic performance, growth characteristics and essential oil content of Salvia officinalis were affected by different light spectra. Increasing the ratio of red light especially combined Red and Blue lights (R70:B30) led to the improvement of growth characteristics. Transient induction of chlorophyll fluorescence showed that the highest fluorescence intensities at all OJIP steps were detected in Red light. The lowest Fv/F0 and Fv/Fm were obtained in plants grown under Red light. Occurrence of leaf epinasty and decrease in Fv/Fm indicative of phenomenon of red light syndrome in the plants under Red treatment. Red light caused a reduction in performance index per absorbed light efficiency of (PIABS) and increase in quantum energy dissipation (ΦD0), light absorption (ABS/RC) and electron trapping (TR0/RC) per reaction center. The highest Fv/F0, Fv/Fm and PIABS were obtained under combination of Red and Rlue light. The highest ΦE0 was also detected in combination of Red and Blue light. The narrow and large stomatal apertures were detected under Red and Blue light, respectively. The highest transpiration rate was achieved in plants grown under Blue light LED. Increasing the ratio of Red light resulted in reduction in transpiration rate and improvement of leaf capacity to control water loss via reducing the opening of stomata. The highest amount of essential oil (1/75% v/w) was achieved in plants exposed to combination of Red:Blue light spectra (R70:B30).
 light spectrum during plant growth can change plant metabolism, LED can be used in favor of producing good-quality food in controlled environment agriculture due to their ease of application, waveband manipulation and limited heat production. Our result showed that photosynthetic apparatus, growth parameters, stomatal characteristics, transpiration rate, relative water content and essential oil content of plants were considerably influenced by light spectra. Using OJIP test confirmed that plants grown under monochromatic Red and Blue lights were less efficient to successfully transfer the excitons and most of the absorbed energy by the photosystems was dissipated as heat. In conclusion, combined Red and Blue lights (especially R70:B30) caused favorable growth, photosynthetic functionality and maximum essential oil content of Salvia officinalis. Therefore, combination of R and B lights (R70:B30) should be considered for production of Salvia officinalis under artificial light systems during commercial controlled environment production of plants.

Light spectrum of growing environment is a determinant factor for plant growth and photosynthesis. Photoregulation is an effective strategy to improve productivity of plants. Light sources such as metal-halide, fluorescent, high-pressure sodium, neon lamps and light-emiting diode (LED) can be used for production of plants in closed environments instead of sunlight. Nowadays, by using the LED (Light Emitting Diode) technology, it is possible to study the physiological effect of different light spectra for optimization of growth conditions and for increase the production of plants in controlled environments. Due to high marketability, producers continually investigate to maximize yield and productivity of sage.The main purpose of this study was to examine and compare different combinations of LED light spectra on morpho-physiological and biochemical response of sage plant. In this study, the effects of different light spectra were implemented and performed as a pot experiment soilless media in the plant growth chamber based on a completely randomized design with 6 lighting spectra including white, blue, red, red30: blue70, red50: blue50 and red70: blue30 with tree replication. The light intensity in all growth chambers was adjusted to photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 250 ±10 μmol m-2s-1 PPFD intensity and light spectrum were monitored using a sekonic light meter. Growth condition was set at 14/10 h day/night cycles, 25/20oC day/night temperatures and 40% relative humidity. In this study, different morphological traits (plant height, root length, root volume, stem diameter, number of leaves, Leaf length, Leaf width, Leaf area, specific leaf area, Number of nodes, Internode length, Number of branches), vegetative parameters, photosynthetic pigment concentrations and biochemical characteristics were measured analyzed. Data analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using IBM SAS software (Version 9.1), and the differences between means were assessed using Duncan’s multiple range tests at p ≤ 0.01. The results showed that the morphological, growth and content of photosynthetic pigments of sage plant were affected by different light spectra. R:B combinational lights caused a better growth in comparison with monochromatic R and B lights. The plants grown under red light had the tallest stem in comparison with the stem lengths of plants grown under other light spectra. The highest shoot and root fresh weight were measured in 70:30 red: blue light. Highest root dry weight and root volume were detected under R70B30 and lowest values of them were observed under R light. In the present study, increasing the ratio of blue light led to the generation of short and small plants, while increasing the ratio of red light led to the improvement of growth characteristics. Concentrations of all photosynthetic pigments in the sage leaves were significantly influenced by the light spectra. The highest Chl a and Chl b concentration was observed under R50B50 and R70B30 lights. Highest total Chl content was detected under R70B30. Highest amount of total phenolic content and antiradical activity was observed in leaves of plants grown under 70:30 red: blue light. Growth and morphology and content of photosynthetic pigments of plants were considerably influenced by light spectra in this study. In conclusion, combined red and blue lights (red70: blue30) by inducing of production of more photosynthetic pigments improved growth and improving growth of sage plant. Therefore, it can be expressed that the presence of both wavelengths (blue and red) is necessary for a better and more complete growth of the plant. In general, it can be suggested that the use of LEDs can result in better economic production-controlled environment systems.

Iranian shallot, scientifically known as Allium hirtifolium, is an important medicinal, edible, and industrial plant that grows in different regions of Iran, especially in the Central Zagros. Since this plant is harvested from its natural environment for consumption, it is necessary to cultivate and study various factors that affect its quantitative and qualitative yield, such as the use of sustainable agriculture. Additionally, genetic and environmental factors, as well as the use of fertilizers and nutrients, affect the growth, development, and yield of medicinal and edible plants, including Iranian shallots. Therefore, creating the best substrate for cultivation, protection, and harvesting is necessary due to the use of these plants in human health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of chemical and organic fertilizer in inoculation with biofertilizer in two years on the yield and biochemical traits of Iranian shallot.

In this study (in the research farm of Islamic Azad University of Shahrekord in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province) investigated the effect of chemical fertilizer application (including: nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus 90, 70 and 60 kg/ha, respectively), chemical fertilizer inoculation with fertilizer Vermicompost (10 tons per hectare), Vermicompost inoculation with bio-fertilizer, manure (including sheep manure 10 tons per hectare), manure inoculation with bio-fertilizer (Including Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi including: Glomus fasiculatum, Glomus intraradices and Glomus mosseae and growth-promoting bacteria including: Azospirillum spp, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis) on Iranian shallot biochemical and yields traits such as: size and weight of Bulb, Amount of phenol, Flavonoid Antioxidants, Starch, Glucose, Total protein, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium of this plant, as an randomized complete blocks design with three replications in two consecutive years (2016-2017 and 2017-2018) was conducted and The simple(year and fertilizer) and combined analysis(year* fertilizer) of variance were done. Data analysis was performed using SAS9.1 software, and LSD test at 5% probability level was used to compare the mean of treatments.

The results of the variance analysis showed that the effect of year on all traits was significant, including size and weight of bulb, phenol, flavonoids, antioxidants, starch, glucose, total protein, nitrogen, and phosphorus, at the level of 1%. The effect of fertilizer on all traits (except starch and glucose) and their interactions (year x fertilizer) on all measured traits except antioxidant activity percent, nitrogen, starch, and glucose were also significant.In the second year, antioxidant activity percent, nitrogen, starch, and glucose had the highest amounts at 42.71%, 2.30%, 0.40, and 0.38, respectively, while in the first year, they had the lowest amounts at 29.05, 1.44, 0.23, and 0.23 mg/g fw, respectively.According to the results, the highest bulb size (8.04 cm), potassium (1.88% and 1.89%), bulb weight (0.095 and 0.096 kg), and total protein (15.05 and 15.72 mg/g fw) were obtained in the vermicompost treatment in inoculation with bio-fertilizer in the second year and chemical fertilizer in inoculation with bio-fertilizer in the second year. Additionally, the highest amount of phenol (1.15 and 1.19 mg/g fw), respectively, in the treatment of vermicompost in inoculation with bio-fertilizer in the second year and chemical fertilizer in inoculation with biofertilizer in the second year, flavonoids (107.1 mg/g fw), and phosphorus (1.623%) in vermicompost in inoculation with bio-fertilizer in the second year were obtained.Moreover, the results of comparing the means showed that the highest percentages of antioxidant activity percent (36.24) and nitrogen content (2.29%) were in vermicompost in inoculation with bio-fertilizer and chemical fertilizer in inoculation with bio-fertilizer in the second year, respectively. The lowest bulb size (3.16 cm), bulb weight (0.037 kg), phenol content (0.168 mg/g fw), flavonoids (48.99 mg/g fw), total protein (6.81 mg/g fw), phosphorus (0.753%), and potassium (0.811%) were observed in control.

According to the results of this study, organic fertilizers can be used in inoculation with bio-fertilizer to increase the production of Iranian shallot as organic fertilizer and not impose a negative effect on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of this plant instead of, excessive use of chemical fertilizers.

Fruits and vegetables are perishable due to high humidity and biological activity after harvesting (breathing, transpiration and biochemical activities). Covering fruits with antimicrobial compounds, while being edible and safe for consumers, is an effective solution to prevent the spoilage of fruits and increase their shelf life. In developing countries, packaging, storage and transportation technologies for these products have not been developed yet. One of the cheap and high-performance methods to increase the shelf life of fruit and maintain its quality during the storage period is to use a coating on the fruit. The purpose of coating application is to reduce water loss, slow aging, polish and better marketing. In addition to improving quality, coating can protect the fruit from pathogens and contamination. Edible coatings create a thin layer on the surface of the food that are effective and eco-friendly alternatives and maintain the firmness of fresh fruits and vegetables. The main components of edible coatings are natural polysaccharides, including starch, cellulose, pectin, alginates and chitosan. These coatings apply by spraying, immersion or rubbing. The use of essential oils and other extracts of medicinal plants has been evaluated in the development of edible coatings.
Adding Ziziphora tenuior L. essential oil to food has been considered as an antioxidant and antimicrobial compound. Directly use of essential oils for fruits and vegetable shelf life has some limitations due to low solubility in water, high vapor pressure and physical and chemical instability. One of the ways to reduce these limitations is the nanoencapsulation of essential oil as. Applications of nano technology to the development of edible coatings (included various nanosystems, including polymeric nanoparticles, nanoemulsions), efforts to control the release of essential oils. Aloe vera gel, which is extracted from the inner parts of the leaves, is clear, odorless, completely healthy and environmentally friendly and can replace the coverings used after harvesting fruits. This is a polysaccharide gel, it dissolves easily in water and has advantages such as preserving the aromatic substances inside the fruit, covering the wound and cuts and it is possible to add substances such as vitamins and essential oils to this gel. Due to the antibacterial properties of aloe vera, adding aloe vera gel to edible coatings can increase the antibacterial properties of this biodegradable coating. On the other hand, using nano technology can increase the efficiency, consistency and better quality of food coatings.
The aim of the present study was to prepare and produce an oral coating of nanoecapsule containing Ziziphora tenuior L. essential oil. The components of the nanocapsule of Aloe vera gel was water, toewin and Ziziphora tenuior L. essential oil. Fresh Aloe vera leaves were used to prepare gel. Zeta-average diameter, particle size distribution, scattering index (PDI) and zeta potential (particle surface charge) were measured. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging was used to evaluate the morphology of the nanocapsule. The stability of produced nanocapsule was evaluated by measuring the particle size changes for 3 months.
21 compounds were identified in the essential oil of Ziziphora tenuior. The main and important constituents of Ziziphora tenuior L. essential oil were Pulegone, Menthofuran and 1,8-Cineole. The results showed that the particle size of nanocapsule containing essential oil was 84.46 nm and zeta potential was -16.02 mV. The results of transmission electron microscope (TEM) photos showed that the size of the particles is less than 200 nanometers and the shape of the particles is almost spherical. The outer surface of the capsules is completely smooth and uniform. Stability studies of particle size and zeta potential for 3 months showed that nanocapsule containing essential oils had good stability. In this formulation, the zeta potential was about -16 mV, which is due to the non-ionic parts of the surfactant on the surface of the nanocapsule, which contributes to the repulsion force and caused the stability of the size of the nanocapsules. In order to determine the amount of essential oil in the nanocapsule, spectrophotometric method was used. The percentage of essential oil in nanocapsule was 83.25%.
Nanoencapsulation of essential is one of the ways to reduce the limitations of essential oil aplication. In the present study, a nancapsule with natural and biodegradable materials (Aloe vera gel) containing Ziziphora tenuior L. essential oil was prepared and the results showed that Ziziphora tenuior L. essential oil was successfully encapsulated in Aloe vera gel. In general, the results of the present study showed that the nanocapsule of Aloe vera gel is a suitable carrier for Ziziphora tenuior L. essential oil and can be used as an oral coating to preserve fruits and vegetables.

Due to the role of salicylic acid in resistance to environmental stresses, this study was conducted at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad to evaluate the effect of this compound under saline condition on peppermint. In a pot experiment, the effect of salicylic acid at five concentrations (0, 5, 10, 50, 100 ppm) and salinity (sodium chloride) at three concentrations (0, 75, 125 mM), in a factorial experiment based on Completely Randomized Design with 15 treatments and three replications was evaluated. The simple effect of salinity showed that with increasing salinity, anthocyanin content and antioxidant capacity increased. This was while the number of days to flowering, plant height, number of lateral branches, leaf area, aerial part dry weight, and leaf to stem ratio decreased significantly. The simple effect of salinity also reduced the percentage and yield of essential oil. Significant interaction was observed between different concentrations of salicylic acid and salinity in terms of the effect on the number of lateral branches, dry weight of underground and aerial part, root to shoot ratio and percentage of essential oil. Also, the simple effect of salicylic acid treatment on delay flowering and reduction of plant height was significant. Salicylic acid treatment reduced the percentage of essential oil. However, this treatment was able to prevent a reduction in essential oil yield significantly. Therefore, salicylic acid treatment was able to reduce the possible negative effects of salinity stress.

In this experiment, we investigated impacts of various LED light qualities, including 100% red, 100% blue, 70% red + 30% blue, and 100% white with the same light intensity 75±5 µmol m-2 s-1 for 30 days on the growth and mineral element concentrations in grafted onto ‘Maxifort’ rootstock and non-grafted tomato seedlings. Photoperiod, temperature, and relative humidity of the growth chamber were maintained at 16 h, 25/21±2 °C (day/night), and 95%, respectively. Results showed that the maximum of plant height was obtained in non-grafted seedlings under 100% R light. The maximum of stem diameter was obtained under 100% B and 70% R:30 %B treatments. The maximum of root fresh weight was obtained under 100% W and 70 % R:30 %B treatments, while the maximum of root dry weight was obtained under 70 % R:30 % B light treatment. The maximum of leaf area, shoot and total dry weight were obtained in non-grafted seedlings under 70 % R:30 % B light treatment. In addition, non-grafted seedlings under 100% R treatment had the highest P concentration. The maximum of K was obtained in grafted seedlings under 100% B, 100% R and 70 % R:30 %B light treatments and non-grafted seedlings under 100% W and 70 % R:30 % B light treatments. Grafted seedlings under 100% B had the highest Ca concentration. In addition, the maximum of Mg was obtained in non-grafted seedlings under 100% W treatment. Collectively, our results showed that combination of 70% red and 30% blue light and as well as the use of a powerful rootstock like ‘Maxifort’ could promotes plant growth and mineral element concentrations for tomato seedlings.

Barberries are a broad class of spiny evergreen or deciduous shrubs belonging to the Berberidaceae family. They are of great importance due to their different parts' nutritional and medicinal properties and their ornamental applications. Genus Berberis, the biggest genus in Berberidaceae, includes more than 660 species. Barberry grows in Asia and Europe and has been used extensively as a medicinal plant in traditional medicine. In Iranian traditional medicine, several properties, such as antibacterial, antipyretic, antipruritic and antiarrhythmic, have been reported with unknown mechanisms of action. Incredible structural diversity among barberries' active components makes them a valuable source of novel therapeutic compounds. Seedless barberry (Berberis integerrima 'Asperma') is one of Iran's valuable indigenous medicinal plants. Common asexual propagation of this plant over the years and consequently low genetic diversity in populations of the seedless barberry restricts selection outcomes in breeding programs. Utilizing the indigenous wild genotypes of the barberry genus, which are easily able to cross-pollinate, is one of the best methods to increase genetic diversity. Accordingly, several wild seedy barberry genotypes were identified from all over Iran, collected and established in a collection in Mashhad; then, 16 genotypes were selected and their physical properties were studied. 
In this study, ripe fruits of sixteen unique genotypes (i.e., Iranian seedless barberry and fifteen seedy genotypes) were harvested in October- November 2015 and kept in a refrigerator in order to measure some of their physical properties in fresh fruits (berry dimension, 100-berry weight, juice content and color indices). For other properties, fruits were dried at room temperature. Fruit cluster length was measured by means of a ruler, the number of berries/cluster and the number of set/aborted seeds in berry by counting, berry dimensions by a digital caliper, weight of fresh and dried 100-berry, percentage of pulp and seed as well as fruit juice content by a scale with 0.001 accuracy. Moisture content was determined using an oven with 75 ºC temperature for 48 hours. Color indices, including L*, a* and b*, were measured using a portable colorimeter (Konica Minolta Chroma Meters CR-410). This study was performed using a completely randomized design with three replications. Data were analyzed by Minitab software version 16 using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and differences among means were determined for significance at p<0.05 using the Bonferroni test.
The results indicated significant differences among genotypes. Based on the results, cluster length ranged between 1.67cm (code 5-3) and 6.29 cm (code 10-1); moisture content was between 8.20% and 11.84% in genotypes 8-3 and 13-2, respectively. The fruit juice content range of the studied genotypes was between 51.22% and 71.87%. Genotype 2-1 had the highest dimension values and the highest 100-berry fresh weight (30.72g) and dry weight (10.00g) fruits. The lowest weights of 100-berry were related to 14-1 and seedless barberry. Genotypes 5-2 had the highest pulp percentage (98.17%) and the lowest seed percentage (1.50%) and 10-1 had the lowest pulp percentage (51.93%) and the highest seed percentage (48.07%). The highest number of set seeds (1.73) and the lowest number of aborted seeds (zero) were found in (10-1) and (14-2), respectively. Based on the results, seedless barberry had the lowest number of set seeds (0.00) and the highest number of aborted seeds (3.27). Regarding fruit color indices, genotypes showed significant variability from orange to brown and dark blue. Color indices L*, a* and b* ranged (from 22.83 to 38.13), (2.31 to 37.76) and (1.18 to 2.28), respectively.   
In conclusion, it can be said that all genotypes have considerable variability in fruit traits (color, fruit dimensions, pulp/seed percentage, moisture content, etc.). Based on the result of this study, genotype 5-2 was the most similar genotype to seedless barberry. The seedless barberry populations have low genetic diversity due to asexual propagation through suckers over many years. Indigenous genotypes can be a valuable genetic resource for future breeding programs to improve the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of seedless barberry and introduce new cultivars of seedless barberry with different colors and consequently different nutritional- medicinal properties.

Plant-pathogenic fungi are considered a serious threat to world food security, causing spoilage in plant products and food poisoning. One of the ways to identify fungi is to examine their mycelium using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). In order to take high-resolution microscopic images and obtain the surface properties of mushroom mycelium samples, it is very important to prepare the samples, i.e. the method of dehydrating and drying them.

In this research, the effect of two dehydration methods and two drying methods on the mycelia of two fungi, Rhizoctonia solani and Rhizopus stolonifer, were compared to study them with SEM.

Microscopic observations showed that for R. stolonifer, dehydration with 100% ethanol and drying and for R. solani at room temperature and dehydration with 50% ethanol and the freezing method produce a smooth and high-resolution image compared to other methods.

Dehydration of fungal mycelium with 50% to 100% ethanol and drying at room temperature or freezing are the optimal methods to prepare them for examination with SEM and produce a smooth and high-resolution image, and the surface features of their mycelium are preserved and well-defined.

Trichoderma and vermicompost are important factors in improving and indirect growth stimulants in a variety of crops and orchards. This study is a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design, under soilless cultivation conditions in the greenhouse, with 4 concentrations of Trichoderma harizianum isolate Bi: 0% (control), 10%, 20%, and 30% by volume of 60 liters of water and two levels of vermicompost: Control (no use of vermicompost) and 50% of pot volume (cocopeat and perlite (2:1)) with 6 replications were established by studying the effect on morphological properties of lettuce cultivar (Green Tower Mi). The highest weight of stem, leaf, and root based on the results of the 10% fungus concentration treatment was observed at the highest levels of 363.75 g, 325.08 g, and 26.35 g, respectively. Also, in the application of vermicompost, the heavier stem fresh weight (377.41 g), leaf fresh weight (348.87 g), and root fresh weight (24.11 g) had the highest weight compared to non-application. The highest number of leaves (36), stem diameter (20.64 mm), and leaf area (211.25 cm-2 g) were observed in fungal treatment with a concentration of 10%. The antioxidant activity of lettuce treated with vermicompost increased by 25.34% compared to the control. Therefore, with the positive effect of vermicompost and Trichoderma on the growth properties of lettuce, the use of these two treatments in planting this plant is recommended. Also, because there was no significant difference between the high levels of the fungus, it is possible to achieve the desired result with fewer savings and costs, even with a concentration of 10% fungus.

The selection of elite parents and hybrids could be used for the genetic improvement of quantitative and qualitative traits in breeding programs of vegetables. In order to genetic evaluation of quantitative and qualitative traits of tomato lines, half-diallel crosses were performed among eight lines C.JPS3, S.2274, H.1370, K.2274, S.L, C20, Primoga and A13012. The obtained hybrids along with parents were planted in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Traits including fruit shape index, no. of locules, fruit firmness index, brix, titrable acidity, pH of fruit juice, no. of inflorescence per plant, no. of flowers per inflorescence, no. of fruits per plant, average fruit weight and yield were measured. Parent K.2274 had the highest values of general combining ability (GCA) for the yield, number of fruits per plant and fruit firmness. The highest specific combining ability (SCA) was observed in C20xC.JPS3 and A13012xK.2274 cross for the average fruit weight, respectively. Among parents and hybrids, parent H.1370 and Primoga × H.1370 hybrid had the highest yield. The highest relative heterosis percentage for no. of fruits per plant, average fruit weight and yield were observed in A13012 × Primoga, C20 × C.JPS3, and Primoga × H.1370 crosses, respectively. Role of over-dominance and dominance effects were more than the additive effect in controlling of yield, no. of fruit per plant, titrable acidity, and brix. However, the additive effect was effective in the control of average fruit weight.

The present study was aimed to evaluate the effect of organic fertilizers of folic acid and amino acids (glycine and glutamic acid) on the plant resistance to stress and yield of cucumber under deficit irrigation conditions. The study was carried out as a factorial in randomized complete blocks with 3 replications. The first factor was fertilization at four levels as control, 200 mg/l folic acid, amino acid glycine and glutamic acid (6 liters per ha), and folic acid + amino acids (glycine and glutamic acid). The second factor was irrigation interval (3, 5 and 7 days). The results showed that an increase in irrigation interval caused a significant reduction in plant dry and fresh weights, internode length, root and shoot lengths, stomatal conductance and chlorophyll contents. Furthermore, combined use of folic acid and amino acid and 7 day irrigation interval increased root length, internode length, leaf area, chlorophyll a and relative leaf water content by 159, 46.9, 84.7, 138 and 36%, respectively, when compared with the control at the same irrigation interval. In addition, a 70% increase in plant fresh weight and 84% increase in fruit weight were observed in irrigation interval of five days and combined treatment of amino acid and folic acid. In general, it can be concluded that the combined application of amino acids and folic acid improved the morphophysiological characteristics of cucumber under deficit irrigation conditions, while it was not effective in improving yield and fruit production with the seven-day irrigation interval.

The deficiency of organic matter in the soil is one of the factors limiting cultivating and growing of plants. While the organic matter is the main factor of soil fertility and the ideal organic matter content of agricultural soils is about 4-6% according to the experiments performed, this amount is very low in arid and desert areas such as those  in Iran. The significant capability of humic fertilizers in the rapid improvement of soil fertilization level is quite recognizable. Humic acid has a direct role in determining the producing potential of the soil. Humic substances can have a positive effect on plant growth in different ways. Humic acid results in an increasing nitrogen uptake by plants and stimulates and enhances the uptake of Ca, Mg, P, and K. By enhancing the resistance to environmental stresses, increasing chlorophyll concentration and thus affecting photosynthesis, amino acids are effective in plant growth and yield. Given the conditions that agriculture faces, drought is the main limiting factor of agricultural production in the present and future. Research has reported that the improvement of plant growth under stress conditions by application of humic substances and amino acid. The use of these factors that increase plant growth in stressful conditions and improve yield is a useful and effective method. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of organic fertilizers on growth traits of cucumber plants under drought stress.

In order to explore the effect of drought stress on cucumber plant, an experiment was carried out in the research field of agriculture faculty of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2015-2016. This study was performed as a factorial design in a completely randomized block design with three replications. The first factor was fertilization at four levels (control, humic acid application (200 ppm), glycine amino acid and glutamic acid application (6 liters per hectare), and combined application of humic acid (200 ppm), glycine amino acid and glutamic acid (6 liters per hectare), and the second factor was irrigation at three levels of 3, 5 and 7 days. Furrows with 2 m apart, 40 cm deep, 50 cm wide and 20 m long were created. Following the soil irrigation, the cucumber seeds were planted on the edge of the experimental hills (4-5 seeds per hill) that were spaced 50 cm apart. The treatments were applied via irrigation at specified concentration. At the end of the experiment Morphophysiological traits were measured.

The results showed that drought stress reduced fresh and dry weights of plant, a number of branches, root length, stem length, and internode length. The amount of available water to plants affects their growth traits. Increasing irrigation interval decreased vegetative growth parameters in this plant, which is undoubtedly due to the lack of water available to the plant. Drought stress leads to stomata closure, plant wilt, swelling reduction, and reduced water content and total potential of the leaf, resulting in decreased cell division, especially in shoots and leaves. As a result, the first effects of dehydration in plants can be seen in their smaller leaf size and lower height than normal conditions. The highest level of drought stress (7 days) decreases all the traits. Unfortunately, the use of humic acid and acid amine had no effect on the highest levels of stress (7 days). The application of humic acid alone could improve the effects of drought stress on the plant. Humic acid enhances plant growth by affecting plant cell metabolism as well as chelating power, increasing nutrient uptake, and increasing nitrogen content. Experimental studies have shown that glycine betaine strengthens enzymatic structures and activities and protein components, and cell wall stability against the damaging effects of environmental stresses is considered to be one of its activities. It seems that organic matter and humic compounds including humic acid through positive physiological effects including effects on plant cells metabolism, increased leaf chlorophyll concentration, increased metabolism within cells, and increased durability of photosynthetic tissues (Increasing leaf durability) leads to increase of production performance and biomass production in plants.

The use of humic acid alone led to improved leaf area, root length, and other traits. These factors caused an improvement in the photosynthetic rate in the plant, resulting in improved yield and growth under drought stress conditions (increased irrigation intervals). The protective and moderating role of the humic acid application under drought stress is one of the reasons for growth improvement by these compounds. In general, the combined application of humic acid and amino acid in the form of irrigation fertilizer in cucumber under drought stress improved growth traits and prevented yield reduction.

Periwinkle is a plant that is highly valued in the pharmaceutical industry because of its alkaloids. Among the 130 known alkaloids in the genus, Vinblastine and Vincristine alkaloids have particular importance due to their anti-tumor properties. Since Periwinkle is the only source of these compounds, it has a special place among medicinal plants. Due to the low content of indole terpenoids alkaloids in Periwinkle and the importance of these compounds in the pharmaceutical industry, as well as the high economic value of some of its secondary metabolites, six different Prewinkle cultivars were studied for morphological and biochemical traits.

This study was conducted in factorial design based on completely randomized with three replications in field and laboratory of Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources. Treatments included six cultivars (Icy Pink, Lilac, Polka Dot, Apricot, Purple, Red Bright) and two organs (leaf and root). The measured factors included fresh and dry weight of roots and leaves, number of lateral stem and root, root length, stem length and amount of Vinblastine, Vincristine and Ajmalicine alkaloids. Alkaloids content were determined by High Performance Liquid Chromatography.

The results showed that the measured parameters had significant effect on morphological and phytochemical properties at 1% probabality level. The highest stem diameter (0.533 cm), root diameter (0.610 cm) and stem length (45.99 cm) were observed in Purple cultivar. The highest amount of Vinblastine was observed in the leaves of Purple (1.7 mg/100g DW) and the lowest level (0.02 mg/100g DW) was measured in the root of Icy Pink. Also the highest amount of Ajmalicine and Vincristine were measured in leaves of Apricot cultivar (1.89 and 3.61 mg/100gDW respectively). However, there were no Ajmalicine alkaloid in the root of Apricot and Red Bright cultivars as well as the leaves of Lilac cultivar.

Different cultivars of Periwinkle have significant differences in the amount of indole terpenoids alkaloids. Although different cultivars of a plant are a subset of the same species, however, the observed differences in different cultivars are controversial. Due to secondary metabolites originate from the primary metabolites of the plant, it is observed that different cultivars of a plant produce different amounts of an alkaloid under the same conditions. This issue can be great importance especially considering the economic value of some alkaloids of this plant. By recommending superior cultivar cultivation in the production of indole terpenoids alkaloids can greatly enhance their production efficiency.

Biochar is a new environmental technology that can be used to reduce the accumulation of soil contamination. To evaluate the effects of biochar of cutflower glayolon growth characteristics and the accumulation of heavy metals of lead and cadmium in lettuce, a factorial experiment as a completely randomized design with four replications was conducted and amount of glayol biochar at three levels (0, 5, 10 g/kgsoil), cadmium (0, 10, 20 mg/kg soil) and lead (0, 300, 600 mg/kg soil) were tested. The results showed that the highest amount of lettuce traits including leaf area, height, fresh and dry weight of shoot and fresh and dry weight of root were found at the rate of 5 g glayol biochar /kg soil. Increment of glayol biochar levels from 5 to 10 g/kg soil decreased all mentioned traits. Application of 5 g biochar /kg soil of at the highest concentrations of lead and cadmium decreased the concentration of lead and cadmium in the plant (shoot+root) up to 27.38 and 21.87 %. The highest rate of biochar, lead and cadmium reduced growth traits, and increased the uptake of lead and cadmium in plant tissues and their concentrations in soil. In fact, glayol biochar (5g /kg soil), because of high specific surface area, adsorbed lead and cadmium on their surfaces and cause to reduce the absorption of these two elements and improved growth characteristics in lettuce.

Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) is a relatively new oilseed crops with high value which its oil is the most important source of gamma linolenic acid. In this study, seed of Evening primrose was stored in different temperature and packaging materials to improve the content and quality of its oil.

In order to study the effect of packaging, storage temperature and storage period on Evening primrose seed oil properties, a split-plot in time experiment was conducted on the basis of completely randomized design at 32 treatments and three replications. Treatments included four levels of storage period (3, 6, 9 and 12 months) as main plot, four levels of packaging (Paper with 0.15 mm, Aluminum with 0.12 mm, PolyVinylChloride (PVC) with 0.09 mm and Cellophane with 0.07 mm thickness) and two levels of temperature (4 °C and Ambient temperature (20 °C)) as sub plots. Seed packages of 100 grams stored in plant physiology laboratory of horticulture department of Ferdowsi university of Mashhad from May 2014 to May 2015. After each period of storage seed oil (extracted by soxhelet) acid and peroxide value were examined as oil quality index. The statistical analysis was performed using the JMP software version 8 and data means were compared using LSD test’s in 5% level of probability. Acid and peroxide value were measured according to standards of EEC REG 2568/91 and AOCS cd 8-53, respectively.

Based on the results, the simple effect of temperature, packaging material and storage time was significant on all the properties of evening primrose oil. Before storage, seed oil content was 16.45% (w/w) but after three months of storage the oil content increased to 19.75% w/w. From third month of storage until 9th a sharp decline was observed, and the oil content was 12.71 % w/w at the end of 9th months. Finally the seed oil content slightly increased until 12thmonth. Before storage, acid and peroxide value were reported 1.16 (mg KOH/g oil) and 2.4 (meq O2/Kg oil), respectively. During storage, acid value showed descending trend so that at the end of 6 and 12 months storage obtained 1.08 and 0.96 mg KOH/g oil, respectively. Oil peroxide value after third months reached to 3.14 (meq O2/Kg oil) and its maximum (9.82 meq O2/Kg oil) was detected at the end of storage period. Ambient temperature in terms of oil content and 4 °C in terms of oil quality were optimum condition for Oenothera seed storage. Seeds samples which packed in paper and cellophane material showed the most oil content (17.29% and 16.75%, respectively). Cellophane packaging in terms of acid (0.89 mgKOH/g oil) and peroxide value (5.05 meq O2/Kg oil) was diagnosed the best packaging material to preserve the quality of the oil during storage. Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on oil percentage was significant at 1%. The highest oil percentage (59/22%) was detected after three months of storage at ambient temperature. Interaction between packaging and storage temperature on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as aluminum packaging at ambient temperature and paper packaging in both temperatures had the highest acid value (1.15 and 1.11mg KOH/g oil, respectively). The lowest acid value (0.82 mg KOH/g oil) was detected in cellophane packaged seeds at 4°C temperature. Interaction between packaging material and storage period on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1%. The highest acid value (1.24 mg KOH/g oil) obtained after six months in paper packaged seeds and seeds samples which packed in cellophane material had the lowest acid value (0.72 mg KOH/g oil) after nine months of storage. Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on acid value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1%. The highest acid value (1.11mgKOH/g oil) was detected after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature. At the end of 12th months at 4 °C temperature, the lowest acid value (0.81mg KOH/g oil) was reported. Interaction between packaging material, storage temperature and storage period on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after six months of storage at 4°C temperature and cellophane packaged seeds after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature showed the highest acid value (1.34 mg KOH/g oil). The end of 9th months in cellophane packaged seeds at both temperature, the lowest acid value (0.72 mg KOH/g oil) obtained. Interaction between packaging material and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after 12 months of storage had the highest peroxide value (11meq O2/Kg oil). Seeds samples which packed in PVC and cellophane material after three months showed the lowest peroxide value (2.15 and 1.85 meq O2/Kg oil, respectively). Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1%. The highest peroxide value (10.01meq O2/Kg oil) was detected after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature. After three months of storage at 4°C temperature the lowest peroxide value (2.65 meq O2/Kg oil) obtained. Interaction between packaging material, storage temperature and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after 12 months of storage at 4°C temperature had the highest peroxide value (12 meq O2/Kg oil). The lowest peroxide value (1.60 meq O2/Kg oil) was detected in cellophane packaged seeds after three months of storage at 4 °C temperature.

Overall, evening primrose seed storage in paper and cellophane packaging during three months at ambient temperature to improve the content of oil was desirable. Seed storage in paper packaging at ambient temperature after12 months, reduced oil quality. Seeds samples which packed in PVC and cellophane material at 4°C temperature preserved the quality of evening primrose oil.

Spinacia olerace is the most important leaf vegetable of the Chenopodiacea family, which has a special place in human nutrition because of its variety of minerals and vitamins. Cultivation of this plant in Iran is several thousand years old and accordingly Iran is considered as the main place and a source of spinach in the world. Growth of plants is affected by genetics, environmental conditions, growing season, nutrients, and soil, harvesting method, temperature, intensity and quality of light. Among these factors, soil nutrients have a significant influence on plant growth and yield. Nowadays, the consumption of organic matter as fertilizer due to its high cost and limited availability is not sufficient and the major nutritional needs of plants are met by chemical fertilizers, which can lead to environmental problems and, over time, reduced yields. In this connection humic acid is a naturally occurring organic compound and contains 2% to 5% organic matter. Humic acid can be used to seedling nutrition and improve its quality and quantity. Given the recent use of organic acids such as humic acid to improve crops and horticulture, but little research has been done on transplant birth, this experiment was conducted to investigate the application of different levels of humic acid in irrigation water at the time of irrigation. Different effects and their effects on growth indices and spinach production were investigated.
The present experiment was conducted to investigate the application of different concentrations of humic acid at different times and its effects on quantitative and qualitative indices of spinach in a factorial completely randomized design with three replications in research greenhouse at Torbat Heydariyeh University. Treatments consisted of three concentrations of humic acid (0, 3 and 6 ml/L) at two application times (one-week and two-week). The mean daily greenhouse temperature at the time of plant growth was 25°C and the mean nighttime temperature was 18°C, the average relative humidity was 60%. After seedlings were planted in the main pots at four-leaf stage, they were irrigated with humic acid (0, 3 and 6 ml/L) at different intervals once a week, twice weekly. The humic fertilizer used belonged to Green Seed Company, containing 24% humic acid and 3% folic acid and 2% potassium. Five weeks after treatment, the traits were measured. Transplant growth indices including number of leaves (by counting the number of shoots per plant), leaf length and width, leaf area, canopy, height, chlorophyll index, chlorophyll a, b, carotenoid and dry weight of each plant were determined.
Based on the results of this experiment, the effect of humic acid concentration on morphological and physiological traits of spinach transplant was significant. The highest leaf number (4.6) at 3 ml concentration and the lowest number (3.5) were at zero concentration. These traits were subjected to humic acid titer, but the increase in concentration had no significant effect on these traits. The increased number of leaves and traits mentioned in the early stages of transplant growth is probably due to the rapid expansion of the root system of the plant at high concentrations of humic acid, which in turn leads to increased nutrient uptake, better plant growth and subsequent growth. Leaf number and other traits become leaf dependent. The results showed that the highest chlorophyll a (1.8 ml/g fresh leaf), chlorophyll b (2.5 ml/ml fresh leaf), carotenoids (7.1 ml/ml). Fresh leaf g) and biomass (150 mg) at 3 ml concentration and the lowest at zero concentration. The highest chlorophyll index (74.1 ml/ml fresh leaf g) was also found in the concentration of 6 ml and the lowest was obtained from zero concentration. Humic acid increased spinach transplant biomass by increasing the amount of photosynthetic pigments and leaf area or the same photosynthetic capacity. In most of the traits, the two-week application time was higher than the one-week, so that spinach transplant biomass increased by 110% over the two-week application period. So that spinach transplant biomass was 156 at the two-week application and 74 mg at the one-week application. Based on the results of this experiment, humic acid application can improve the quantitative and qualitative traits of spinach transplant and its production.
Production of vegetable seedlings have an important role in the production and olericulture economy. Specializing in different activities in the vegetable production process will simplify the production process and increase efficiency. This means that the best conditions for seedling growth should be provided during transplanting. Application of humic acid organic fertilizer instead of chemical fertilizer can reduce environmental pollution in line with sustainable agriculture and healthy eating with vegetables to prevent the accumulation of chemicals in the human body to be effective. In this regard, the results of this study showed that using low humic acid as organic fertilizer can improve morphophysiological traits of spinach transplant.

Choosing the best covering material for the greenhouse roof is a very important factor influencing the quantity and quality of light entering the greenhouse. Some vegetative and reproductive traits and biochemical characteristics of two tomato cultivars (‘Synda’ and ‘Melody’) grown in some greenhouse units roof-covered with four covering materials (glass, plastic, polycarbonate and corrugated polyethylene) were investigated for autumn cultivation in the Research Greenhouses of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. This experiment was designed in a split plot (main-plot: greenhouse cover; sub-plot: cultivar) based on a completely randomized design. The highest to lowest radiation rates were recorded in corrugated polyethylene, glass, plastic and polycarbonate covers, respectively. The ANOVA results showed that vegetative, reproductive and biochemical traits were significantly affected by greenhouse cover, cultivar, or greenhouse cover × cultivar interaction. Raising the plant health index through increasing the stem diameter and decreasing plant length was influenced by the amount of the irradiation provided by greenhouse covers; it was significantly higher in the corrugated polyethylene and glass covers rather than the plastic and polycarbonate ones. The maximum numbers of days from transplanting to flowering stage were obtained in the corrugated and glass covers (35.5 and 35 days, respectively) for the ‘Synda’ cultivar, and in glass cover (32.2 days) for the ‘Melody’ cultivar. The lowest fruit ripening (60 days) was observed in the ‘Melody’ cultivar under the corrugated polyethylene cover, while the highest value (80.25 days) was recorded in ‘Synda’ cultivar under the polycarbonate cover. Fruit production was the highest in the ‘Synda’ cultivar under corrugated polyethylene (6503.6 g/plant) and glass (6337.3 g/plant) covers, while ‘Melody’ under plastic and polycarbonate covers (1314.2 and 1027.1 g/plant, respectively) showed the lowest amount. According to the results of this experiment, from an economic point of view, based on Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IIR) factors, the greenhouse cultivation of ‘Synda’ cultivar under glass cover is recommended in Mashhad climatic conditions.