حسین معروفی

Eryngium pyramidale Boiss. & Hausskn (Apiaceae) is one of the rarest sub-endemic species in the flora of Iran. This rare species grows at an altitude of 1600-2000 meters a.s.l. Based on IUCN criteria and categorized and derived data from GeoCAT (EOO= 13.291 km2; AOO= 0.030 km2), this species is assigned as Critically Endangered (CR). Among the solutions to conserve this valuable sub-endemic species are the comprehensive protection of oak forests in the west of the country by all relevant organizations, preventing unauthorized constructions in the villages of Avroman, as well as ex-situ conservation by protecting its seeds in the Natural Resources Gene Bank of Iran and its cultivation in botanical gardens.

Scorzonera nivalis Boiss. & Hausskn (Asteraceae) is one of the narrowest endemic species in Iran's flora, restricted to the Schahu and Avroman Mountains. IUCN criteria and GeoCAT data (EOO= 339.736 km2; AOO= 4.41 km2) classify this species as Critically Endangered (CR). This species was not collected after it was introduced 156 years ago by Boissier and Haussknecht until 2013 when it was collected for the second time from Schahu Mountain. Later studies conducted in Kurdistan Province added other populations from the Avroaman Mountains to the samples of this valuable species. The most efficient way to protect this species is to help its propagation through seeding and sowing in other similar habitats in the Schahu and Avroman Mountains. Introducing Schahu Mountain as a protected area by the Department of Environment of Iran, preventing livestock from entering the top of the mountain, collecting seeds, and storing them in the Natural Resources Gene Bank of Iran are other effective ways to protect this valuable reserve.

Two new species of Cousinia are described from Iran. Cousinia bornmulleriana from the west that can be placed in sect. Haussknechtii based on some key characters such as flower numbers, phyllary numbers and the inflorescence form traits. This species can be also compared with its closest relative C. haussknechtii. and C. karkasensis. The second new species, C. semnanensis, from North East of Iran, belongs to the sect. Stenocephalae for its flower numbers, winged stem, and phyllaries shape, and is compared to C. alexeenkoana and C. glaucopsis as its close relative. Natural photos and distribution maps are presented.

Lactuca adenophora Boiss. & Kotschy (Asteraceae), is reported here as a new record from Nacarouz and Dalanpar Mountains for the flora of Iran. The geographical distribution of the new record and its distinguishing characters plus its detailed photos are presented.

Geranium kurdicum Bornm. (Geraniaceae), is reported here as a new record from Dalanpar Mountain for the flora of Iran. The geographical distribution of the new record and its distinguishing characters, plus its detailed photo are presented.

Assessing the floristic resources of each region is very important because it serves to identify it’s the genetic potential. The Lailakh region with about 13600 hectares, is located in the west of Iran, neighboaring the Dehgolan city. In order to identify the flora, life form and chorology, plants of the region were collected during the growing seasons of 2015 and 2016. 261 species belonging to 197 genera and 50 families of vascular plants were recognized in the region. Asteraceae with 36 species, Lamiaceae with 23, Fabaceae with 20, Poaceae with 21, Apiaceae with 18, Brassicaceae and Boraginaceae each with 16 species are the largest families of this region flora. The largest genera were Astragalus, Salvia, Silene, Vicia, Centaurea, Euphorbia, Amaranthus, Allium , Bromus and Veronica each with 8, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3 species, respectively. Studying the biological spectrum of species showed that Hemicryptophytes with 49 % is the dominant life form. The largest proportion of the chorological elements belonged to Irano-Turanian floristic region (52%), followed by Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian elements (11%), which indicated that the area was strongly influenced by Irano-Turanian floristic elements. Thirteen species (0.7 percent) in this habitat are endemic for Iran. In addition, 103 species used as medicinal plants.

Biodiversity conservation is one of the most important challenges in forest ecosystems, especially where the local people's livelihood is highly dependant on that resources. Obtaining information on the potential and present condition of vegetation diversity is an important step to conduct successful conservation plans. In this study, we sampled 32 plots in sacred groves with no grazing or disturbance evidence and 90 plots in surrounding silvopastoral woodlands with a continuous grazing and pollarding history. We compared species diversity, life form, and chorotype of vegetation composition between these two stands and we determined the most important environmental gradients affecting this composition. The result indicates that sacred groves have significantly different species diversity, life forms, and chorology compositions than their surrounding woodlands. Out of 254 species identified in this study, 95 species are shared between both sites; 114 species are uniquely found in sacred groves that most of which have phanerophyte, hemicryptophyte, or cryptophyte life forms, and Irano-Turanian, Meditteranean, or Euro-Siberian Chorotypes. Surrounding silvopastoral woodlands contain 45 unique species as well as therophyte and chameophyte as the major life forms and Irano-Turanian, Meditteranean, or Saharo-Sindian chorotypes. Sacred groves as a network of less-disturbed stands, with higher canopy and litter cover without grazing and pollarding provide a better ecological condition for a variety of valuable plant species and considering their traditional protection by local people they play an important role in conserving biodiversity in northern Zagros.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of grazing intensity and type of livestock and environmental factors on vegetation composition and diversity in five areas with different livestock types (cattle, Markhoz goat, Mo goat, and sheep) and different grazing intensities (five treatments) at the forests of Armardeh. In total, 34 sample plots (100 m^2) for vegetation cover sampling were taken. Differences between regions in terms of species diversity were analyzed using analysis of variance and the effect of livestock grazing on vegetation composition using Redundancy Analysis (RDA). Result indicates that, control and the region with four livestock types have highest and lowest diversity respectievely. Canopy cover (percent), elevation, Quercues branti- Q. infectoria type, and stocking rate where the most important environmental factors are driving vegetation composition. Livestock type and grazing intensity with some environmental variables shape affect significantly the vegetation composition, in a way that with increasing grazing intensity and livestock type, annual and invasive plants appear in highest presence and with decreasing of those, forbs, shrubs, and geophyte plants are widely spread in the vegetation composition.

Consideration to Natural compounds that have antibiotic and allelopatic effects increased because generally have fewer side effects. Studies on secondary metabolites and biological effects of compounds of other species of the Ferula have been carried out but there was no report about the Ferula oopoda in Iran. In this study, the chemical compounds found in the leaves of Ferula oopoda were identified and measured. Allelopathic effects on total germination, Speed of germination, Coefficient of the rate of germination indices, of wheat and rye seeds were investigated. Antioxidant properties and antimicrobial effects of leaf and root extract of Ferula oopoda were also measured. the aqueous leaf extract of Ferula Opuda significantly reduces total germination, Speed of germination, Coefficient of the rate of germination in wheat and rye seeds. the radical inhibitory potency and the antioxidant potential of the extract of Leaf and Root of Ferula oopoda are comparable to vitamin C. the Relative inhibitory zone diameter of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli due to different concentrations of Leaf and Root of Ferula oopoda extract significantly confirms its antimicrobial effects. chemical composition of the Ferula oopoda leaf extract showed the presence of compounds such as alpha pinin betamircin and caryophylline. Many of the biological effects can be attributed to these compounds. Thus, Ferula oopoda can be a good source for production of natural antibiotics and herbicides the numerous and varied compounds in the organs of this plant also show the capacity to use it for the preparation of new herbal remedies.

Sternbergia colchiciflora (Amaryllidaceea) is recorded for the flora of Iran from Kurdistan province (West Iran). The species has been collected from rocky oak forests around Bandol Village in Marivan.The geographical distribution of the new record and its distinguishing characters are discussed.

In this article the collection of specimens related to Onosma sulaimanica from Kordestan Province, Iran, was confirmed and reported for the first time. Therefore, the species is recorded for the flora of Iran. This species is placed in the sect. Onosma, subsect. Onosma, ser. Wheeler-hainesii. A diagnostic key of related taxa belonging to series Wheeler-Hainesii and Aleppica, and the photos, micrographs and a distribution map of the species were also presented.

Trifolium kurdistanicum S.Yousefi, Assadi & Ghaderi(Fabaceae) is one of the endemic species in the flora of Kurdistan province, distributed in the mountains of Bendol village in the southwest of Marivan. Based on IUCN criteria and categorizes, this species is assigned as Critically Endangered (CR). This species has only one population. Although isolation of the species in a restricted habitat is the main reason for its conservation, it is also the main inhibitor factor for its expansion to create larger populations. Extreme rockfall and soil instability of the habitat of this species are serious threats to its survival. Due to lacking natural corridors for expanding and migration of the species to other similar habitats in the Avroman area, the best ways for such an aim are seeding and sowing in the area that requires sufficient funding and skilled people to be fully familiar with the area and its flora. Botanical gardens and research farms will be other destinations for propagation of this valuable species.

Urban neighborhoods used to be an essential part of the social, economic, and physical fabric of traditional Iranian cities. Strong ties, a sense of belonging, and cooperation among inhabitants had established an informal welfare system that has limited the intervention of authorities in neighborhoods’ affairs. The formation of the central government and rapid urbanization in the last century has changed the nature of urban neighborhoods from social and administrative units to mere physical urban blocks. At the same time, the application of modern planning tools such as zoning, land-use adjustment, and neighborhood-unit concepts have established homogenous physical neighborhoods with little attention to social issues. A brief analysis of today’s urban issues reveals that the traditional concept of ‘neighborhood’ has little place in the planning and management of cities. Demographic shifts, gentrification, and constant alteration of land-uses in contemporary neighborhoods have reduced the sense of belonging to a local community, and therefore have diminished social cohesion with the city.  As a response to the current problems, in the past two decades, a shift in planning paradigms along with social and economic changes at the global level has transferred the focus of planning from macro scale to local scale of communities. Formation of various discourses such as neighborhood development, neighborhood planning, sustainable neighborhood-based development, urban village, etc.… accentuates the importance of local communities in urban planning and management, on the one hand, and emphasizes the need to revive the value of traditional communities on the other hand. Therefore, this study aims to revive and redefine social and administrative features of traditional neighborhoods in planning contemporary Iranian cities according to the following steps: first, this study analyzes the main social and administrative components of neighborhoods in traditional Iranian cities. Then, the main components of the neighborhood-based planning approach are derived to make a comparison between the former and the latter issues. Finally, this study provides strategies for the social-administrative regeneration of neighborhoods in contemporary Iranian cities. Due to its analytical and comparative nature, this research uses bibliographical documents to define the main components of the neighborhood-based planning approach. Then the social and administrative nature of neighborhoods in traditional and contemporary cities of Iran is analyzed and the main components and indicators are derived from library resources and deep discussion with experts. To make a comparison, a group of experts and specialists in urban issues were asked to compare the social-administrative components of traditional Iranian neighborhoods with the components derived from the neighborhood-based planning approach. The comparison highlights both supportive and deterrent factors in the realization of a neighborhood-based approach in the planning of contemporary Iranian cities. The data analysis displays the fact that many principles of neighborhood-based approach were used to be practiced regularly in traditional neighborhoods of Iranian cities. However, according to experts, some features of traditional neighborhoods such as patriarchy, hierarchical social structure, segregation of ethnic and religious groups, and restrictions on the presence of women in public spheres, are not compatible with the ideals of the neighborhood-based approach. On the other side, some features of contemporary Iranian neighborhoods, such as neighborhood councils, community-based organizations, and ethnoreligious inclusiveness are considered supportive factors in realization of a neighborhood-based approach. The result of this study also highlights two important issues: first, the social and administrative features of traditional Iranian neighborhoods are quite consistent with the components of neighborhood-based approach (however the existence of some deterrent factors are undeniable); second, redefinition and application of the neighborhood-based approach in contemporary Iranian cities establishes a good opportunity to solve urban challenges and urban management issues especially in large metropolises. The findings suggest that although social and administrative regeneration of traditional neighborhoods is associated with many challenges, the use of new planning tools, such as the neighborhood-based approach, can provide the necessary social, cultural, and administrative bases for realization of neighborhoods with a strong sense of identity and belonging. Since this study does not cover a specific statistical population, its results cannot be generalized to all cities in Iran. Future research can adopt a case study approach and define a statistical population to apply the issues raised in this study. However, the suggested strategies in this article can provide guidelines for policymakers and urban planners to provide processes to establish autonomous, self-sufficient, and self-supportive neighborhoods in contemporary Iranian cities.

Analyzing the spatial features of Islamic-Iranian cities has been a dominant mode in studies related to urban history in Iran. The research investigates the socio-political structure of Iran after the Safavid dynasty up to the Constitutional reform in order to get a better understanding of different influential factors in governing cities. This research offers an alternative way of reading Islamic-Iranian cities through which urban space becomes a reflection of power relation and interaction between different institutions involved in urban government. Starting with introduction of state-society structure in pre-modern Iran, the article suggests three institutions that are directly involved in urban government. These three institutions are: the institution of the sovereign (Nahad-e- Hakemiatä, the institution of shari’a (Nahad-e Mazhab), and the institution of custom (Nahad-e-Urf) corresponding respectively to the state, religion, and communal affiliations. The negotiation and interaction between these three institutions were fundamental for maintaining secutiy, stability, public morality and social welfare of inhabitants in one coherent urban system. Accordingly, the produced space in traditional Iranian cities was a result of collective interaction between the state’s authority, customs, and religious culture realized in different functional zones of cities which are politico-administrative zone of citadel (arg), socio-economical zone of bazar and semi-autonomous zone of residential neighbourhoods.

Paeonia is the only genus of the family Paeoniaceae. It includes about 40 species in the world and according to the latest report three species are found in Iran. Two species under the names P. wendelboi and P. tomentosa in north and northwest of Iran and P. mascula subsp. mascula from western Iran. The latter species has a very small distribution area in the semi-dense forests of Marivan in the west of Kurdistan province and it was recorded for the first time in 2005 from Iran. It should be noted that the known habitat of this species in Iran is unique with an area of about 500 square meters. The conservation status of this species in the world has been defined as (Least Concern: LC) according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), but regionally and in Iran it is a very rare species. Therefore, it is recommended to take urgent and necessary measures to protect it in its unique habitat.

Trifolium longidentatum Nabelek is reported as a new record from the Kurdistan province, West of Iran. It belongs to the section Trifolium, subsect. Ochroleuca. This species, is characterized by long calyx teeth, oblong-lanceolate stipules that adnate to petiole in four-fifths of their lengths, pale pink flowers and bent beak pods. It is taxonomically an isolated species and there is no very close species to it in the Flora Iranica area. Morphological characteristics, habitats and geographical distribution of T. longidentatum are presented. An identification key to the Iranian members of Trifolium sect. Trifolium subsect. Ochroleuca is also provided.

Zarivar region, with about 12,000 km2 area, is located in the west of Iran, neighboaring the Marivan city. This region has a rich floral diversity due to some ecological factors such as: the average annual precipitation (about 997 mm/year), influence of the mediteranean water masses and situation within zagros mountain. The purpose of this study was to introduce floristic list, life forms and chorology of species of zarivar region. plant specimens were collected during years 2014-2016. Totally, 590 plant species belonging to 355 genera and 81 families were determined. Among the studied plants, 472 dicots and 116 monocots and two pteridophytes were recognized. The largest family was Compositae with 46 genera and 72 species, and the largest genus was Trifolium (Papilionaceae) with 10 species. Hemicryptophytes were the dominant life form and comprised 40% of the flora. From chorological point of view, the largest proportion of the flora belonged to the Iran-Turanian elements (38%). Among the 590 species of flora this region 160 species are medicinal plants, 43 species endangered Plants and 50 species endemic in Iran.

Due to the ecological diversity in Kurdistan province, there are ecosystems, which are of greatest importance in terms of species diversity and rare plants. These ecosystems are present across the province, especially in the west. The Zarivar Lake is one of the most important habitats in the city of Marivan. This site is of great importance in terms of tourist attractions. As an ecological unit and an aquatic ecosystem, the Zarivar Lake is considered a very beautiful and rare phenomenon in Kurdistan, located in a relatively wide longitudinal valley and surrounded from the west and east by the mountains covered with forests. The dominant vegetation cover of the region is semi-dense forests, whose dominant species is oak, forming the tree and shrub elements together with Pyrus syriaca, Crataegus meyri, and Amygdalus lycioides. A dense vegetation cover of herbaceous plants covers wide areas of the lake. So far, 271 species, belonging to 53 families and 183 genera, have been identified and introduced around the lake. Some of the species, like Tetrataenium nephrophyllum, are endemic to the Zarivar Lake, and the others, like Carex pseudocyperus, are reported for the first time from the west of Iran. The presence of endemic and rare plant species in the Zarivar Lake doubles the importance of vegetation and conservation of these valuable plant genetic resources. The Zarivar Lake is also rich in fauna including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and numerous microscopic organisms are living in this habitat.

The natural rangeland changing into dryland is one of the important agents for destruction of rangelands in Iran. The destruction and landuse conversion can impress various constituents of rangeland ecosystems. This research mainly attempts to investigate the vegetation transitions in species diversity in the years following destruction.
The natural rangelands (key area) and the converted adjacent lands into drylands (critical area) were selected for sampling by using random-systematic plan in Dehgolan of Kurdistan Province. Three transects along a slope with 100 m length for each and 50 m distance between them were set at two herbal mentioned areas. Based on minimal area method, five quadrats of one square meter area were set along each transect. The species list with their self-relative frequency was registered in quadrats. The species evenness based on four numerical indices including Simpson's evenness, Camargo, Smith-Wilson and Modified Nee, the species richness according to two indices including Jackknife estimate and Rarefraction method and the species diversity by four indices including Shannon-Wiener, Brillouin, McIntosh and Simpson were analyzed and compared together.
26 herbal species at the natural rangeland and 18 species at the land converted into dryland were gathered. The results obtained from data analysis showed that species diversity and richnessof plants have had degradation and species evenness has dad enhancement at the land converted into dryland. However, statistical T-Test did not show a significant difference between the two mentioned fields. Generally, it was concluded that rangeland changing into dryland reduced the species diversity of range plants and its statistical non-significance was of multiple reasons.

This study was carried out in three regions including the undisturbed, moderately disturbed, and highly disturbed of Yaghub-abad, Shoy, and Sadbar in Oak forests of Baneh County in order to investigate the effect of human made destruction on flora and plant species diversity. Three forest patches with similar physiographic conditions of each treatment were selected and three 1000 m2 plots (transect method and the 100m distance interval) were taken in each patch to record the floristic information. At the plot center, in a 400 m2 plot, type and abundance of tree and shrub species type were estimated. Also abundance of understory species in 5 micro plots with 1.5×1.5 m dimensions were recorded in this sample. . Species richness, Simpson and Shannon diversity and Shannon evenness indices were calculated to each sample. The results showed that there were 195 plant species which 47, 25, 15 species were exclusively observed in less disturbed, moderate disturbed and severe disturbed respectively. The results revealed that Asteraceae family is dominant in the area and in terms of Raunkiaer life forms, hemicryptophytes are dominant and considering chorotypes, vegetative region of Iran and Turan (Iranian-Turan) was mainly observable. This study also showed that the highest species richness and species diversity of Shannon-wiener belongs to the less disturbed region and the lowest ones calculated for sever disturbed region.

Northern Zagros forests are one of the most important ecosystems in Iran from ecological and socio-economic points of view. This study was done to determine the most important gradients affecting on plant species distribution by using ordination methods. Environmental variables including inclination, slope aspect, elevation, litter depth, bare soil percentage, soil organic carbon, available P, K, N, soil texture, pH and EC were measured in 60 plots along with vegetation data and canopy cover. Redundancy detrended analysis (RDA) was performed to identify the main environmental gradients. 90 plant species belonging to 75 genus and 32 families were determined. Species belonging to Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Poaceae, and Fabacea families had the most contribution in floristic composition. RDA results showed that with considering spatial autocorrelation of sample plots as covariate, slope aspect, litter depth, canopy cover, C/N, elevation and outcrop explained 30% of the total variations in floristic composition. The results of this study can be used to do more efficient management of these fragile ecosystems.

Campanula kurdistanica is described as a new species. It has been collected from Kurdistan province on north to north-west slopes of Shahoo Mountain on shady cliffs and rocks crevices. Campanula kurdistanica differs from its relative species in Iran mainly by deeply divided lobes of corolla about ¾ of its length. It is illustrated and differences from its relatives are discussed.

Environmental pollution with heavy metals and their transfer to plants is an increasing universal problem. In this study، raw and treated wastewaters were reused for potato cultivation under lysimetric condition. Consequently، a completely randomized test was designed، with four irrigation treatments and three replications. The irrigation treatments were categorized as follows: irrigation with raw wastewater (T1)، treated wastewater (T2)، a combination of 50% raw wastewater and 50% fresh water (T3)، and a combination of 50% treated wastewater and 50% fresh water (T4). The soil of each treatment was sampled in order to assess the Cd، Zn، Cu and Pb pollutions on the basis of the Pollution Index (PI) and to analyze the correlation between the mentioned metals in two soil depths. The results showed that the effects of irrigation treatments on PI of Cd، Pb (p ≤0. 05)، Zn and Cu (p ≤0. 01) amounts were significant. The maximum and minimum values of this index were observed in the T1 and T4 treatments، respectively. The ranking of PI magnitude in all treatments was T1> T3> T2> T4. Also، the results showed that the PI values of the mentioned metals except Cu in the soil depth of 0-10 cm was lower than those in the soil depth of 10-20 cm. The maximum Pearson’s correlation coefficient value was observed between Pb and Cu. Also، the values of this coefficient in soil depth of 0-10 cm were more than those in the depth of 10-20 cm (except the values between Pb and Zn and between Cu and Cd). In this study، the PI values of Pb، Zn and Cu، were lower than 1 and the PI values of Cd were between 2 and 3.

The Iranian materials of the genus Vicia were reviewed. A critical study of 500 specimens collected for this study and additional herbarium specimens led to reporting a new subspecies، V. villosa Roth. subsp. dasycarpa (Ten.) Cav. from Iran. In addition، recollection and identification of two species، V. mollis and V. lathyroides which were not deposited in any of the Iranian herbaria before. According to the results of this study15 sections within the Iranian materials of Vicia were recognized. Also the following changes were applied: revival of two sections Crocea and Lenticula; transferring the members of sect. Cassubicae to sect. Vicilla; V. koeieana from sect. Anatropostyla to sect. Ervilia; V. hirsuta from sect. Ervum to sect. Ervilia; V. crocea from sect. Vicilla to sect. Crocea; recognition of the subgen. Cracca. Four new synonymes made: subgen. Vicilla as synonym of subgen. Cracca; sect. Cassubicae as synonym of sect. Vicilla; V. sojakii as synonym to V. ciceroideae; V. michauxii var. stenophylla as synonym to V. michauxii. Furthermore، V. lutea var. lutea is deleted from the flora of Iran and V. canescens is recognized as its sensu lato with no infra-specific taxa in. A taxonomic key to the Vicia taxais presented here.