ربیعا اسکینی

Marriage in Iran and the United States is derived from a legal, social, and religious institution. Marriage laws have significantly changed in both countries over time, including the removal of bans on interracial marriage in the United States and numerous changes to family rights in Iranian law since 1978. Marriages differ considerably in terms of religion, social status, economic status, age, commitment, and more. Marriage can be dissolved through annulment, divorce, or the death of a spouse. Divorce laws vary across different states and address issues such as the division of marital property, child custody, and spousal support obligations. Unfortunately, hopes and expectations for a shared life sometimes fail; this can be due to the parties having little information about their rights and duties as spouses. The breakdown of a marriage is a painful process often accompanied by severe emotional and financial distress. The combination of financial and non-financial tensions leads to the failure of the marriage. In both countries, the rights and duties of spouses toward each other have been subject to numerous changes and many challenges.

The parent company is a company whose share of the company against another company is sufficient to control management and operations by influencing and electing the board of directors. The most important mission of UNCITRAL is to standardize and modernize international trade law through legislative and non-legislative tools on various issues of international trade law, including the supervision of the parent company. The findings of the present study, which has been written in a descriptive-analytical method with the aim of explaining the theoretical foundations of parent companies' liability in cases of bankruptcy of subsidiaries, indicate that: a) If the company is owned by other companies, with applying the rule of breaking the veil of personality, the parent company may be declared bankrupt under certain circumstances and a bankruptcy order may be issued; b) If the company is a capital company, the parent company can be prosecuted only by applying the rule of fraud to the law.

The Convention on the International Sale of Goods refers to right of lien in five articles: Article 58 regarding reciprocal exchanges and the possibility of delay in payment of the price after inspection of the goods, Articles 85 and 86 about the cost of maintaining the seller for the seller if the customer fails to pay the price or receipt of the seller and for the customer if he wants to refuse the goods. For example, if it does not match, use it. Article 81 regarding the return of the parties after termination and dissolution of the contract and Article 71 deals with the time of suspension of the contract in the foreseeable breach. Iranian civil law does not mention the right of lien in the general rules of contracts, but because of jurisprudential books in the part of sale, Article 377 Iranian civil law without mentioning its name, briefly talked only rules of lien about reciprocal exchanges. However, the other cases mentioned in the convention are not mentioned.Some considered it against the rule, thus with a narrow interpretation of this article, only the prescribed cases are considered subject to the right of lien. In this essay, with study the types and rulings of the right of lien in the Convention and Iranian law and their basics, had been tried to examining the possibility of accepting and applying other prescribed items in convention which are silent in Iranian law.

In the last decade, the combination of blockchain, distributed ledger technology, and digital contracts has led to the invention of the modern form of smart contracts. In fact, smart contract is a self-executing computer software. Resolving the problem of breaches of obligations-especially among anonymous interlocutors in the international arena-, reducing the need to physically go to the court, eliminating major human interventions in the ratification and implementation of the provisions of the contract are some of the achievements of this initiative. One question which is raised is that in addition to the basic conditions of contracts mentioned in Article 190 of the Civil Code, ‘what legal rules are required in the design of such contracts, especially to protect the public non-legal entities?’ The present study was done by descriptive-analytical method to investigate the recent developments of French civil law in order to regulate special provisions of electronic contracts in compliance with Iranian law. Findings show that due to the inconsistency of the nature of smart contracts with current electronic legal contracts, some important legal rules such as good behavior and commitment of the parties to the full knowledge of the provisions of the contract may be violated in such contracts. In addition, there is a possibility of violation of personal or mental criteria governing the correctness of transactions, such as consent to conclude a contract in the electronic agency. As a result, using the jurisprudential rule of Estimar, the maximum authority of the electronic representative is to provide advice in concluding a contract, and the will of individuals cannot be considered as defeated by predetermined computer algorithms. Therefore, the proposed solution in order to express the full will of parties is to use smart combined contracts (code and text).

It is unrealistic to think that foreign companies only have rights in Iran's legal system, because there is no rights-oriented approach to this matter in any legal system, but what exists are obligations along with rights. . Of course, these obligations can be at three levels, which can be considered as legal obligations, contractual obligations, and customary obligations. Apart from the contractual obligations and customary obligations that are not discussed in this treatise, the obligations imposed on foreign companies by law are more important. These laws can be both at the level of the constitution, at the level of ordinary laws, and at the level of regulations and guidelines. Non-registration of foreign companies according to the existing laws in the commercial law systems of each country should have the guarantee of various legal, criminal and even administrative enforcements. In this regard, this issue is mentioned in the regulations of the World Trade Organization and especially in the Agreement on Tariff Measures - which governs tax tariffs - and discrimination in the registration of foreign companies as a violation of the obligations of the member states of the Trade Organization. The world knows. The thing that needs to be noted regarding the registration of foreign companies is that due to being within the territory, each government has chosen its own laws and regulations in the field of legal enforcement guarantee.

Developing transboundary business relations doubles the significance of changing the attitude towards the problem of transboundary bankruptcy, questions such as the impact of parent business companies' bankruptcy on companies under their coverage or possession, and vice versa are among the most important questions regarding the issue of transboundary bankruptcy of the multinational companies. The answers to the above-mentioned questions in the national arena have been formulated in the positive laws of each country, but they are still ambiguous regarding the international and transnational contexts. This research has tried to answer the above mentioned questions by descriptive and analytical review of the existing rules and regulations and procedures of the courts regarding the case of transboundary bankruptcy. At last, it was found that it is not possible to examine the effects of the bankruptcy of any company on another company without probing features of transboundary bankruptcy and business characteristics of the multinational corporation's activities. Therefore, features of transboundary bankruptcy have been designed and examined in three legal, economic and political areas.

Since the enactment of the Check law in 1355/4/16, for economic and social reasons, the check as a commercial document has been far from its main purpose, which was the means of cash payment and has been transformed by obtaining credit. This led the legislature to amend the law several times. The last amendment of this law was made on 13/8/1397. One notable innovation in this amendment is enshrined in Article 23. Due to the inconsistency of such a method and order, as well as the ambiguity of the text of this article, it is necessary to examine its essence and form. This research has examined this article in a descriptive and analytical manner and with the help of libraries, and one of its most important findings is the impossibility of issuing an order to suspend the executive operations of the legal court issuing the executive order by a judge of the prosecutor's office or a criminal court, something that is apparently taken from the article in the opposite way. Also, if an order to suspend the executive operation is issued, the issuing judge will be subject to the provision of cash and the amount of the check.

Over the decades, globalization has affected all areas of human life. One of the challenges that globalization has created is securities. On the other hand, due to the willingness of countries to intervene in economic affairs, especially the stock exchange, it has caused a dual nature of public-private. This, along with globalization, has created ambiguities in the conflict of laws related to these documents. The main question that arises is what effect has the globalization and liberalization of securities had on the legislative and judicial policies of countries? The liberalization and internationalization of securities markets, in addition to further complicating some aspects of these markets, has necessitated the development of appropriate legislative policies and strategies with these changes. Unfortunately, there is no explicit provision in Iranian law for conflict of laws in the field of securities, and it seems that the legislature has strengthened the national aspect of securities in the securities market law. After the country leaves the European Union, it is applied to determine the law governing securities. In international documents, the principle of the rule of will to determine the law governing securities is accepted if it does not conflict with public order and rules. In this article, we first examine and determine the legal nature of securities, then, we examine the various legal regimes that may prevail in an international securities agreement, and in the final chapters, using the documents. International, jurisprudence and experiences of other countries, we will clarify the strategies for determining the law governing securities transactions.

Following the development of new technologies at the beginning of the 21st century, a new generation of self-executing electronic contracts called smart contracts in the field of digital commerce has been developed, which is the product of combining distributed office technology called blockchain with computer code and IoT. Relying on computer algorithms for the accurate and secure execution of smart contracts does not eliminate the need for legal evaluation. The question now is whether conflict resolution rules still apply to smart contracts? This research, which has been done with an analytical approach, has evaluated the existing criteria in private international law intersection with this new technology. A comparative study of Iranian and European Union law (Regulations of Rome I) shows that, although the use of personal criteria in determining the law governing smart contracts directly clarifies the answer if the will of the parties is not exercised at the time of designing of the smart contract’s software, the international dispute resolution body, has to resort to objective criteria. The conclusion is that these criteria are still valid. Still, the effect of objective criteria that are most closely related to the characteristics of this type of contract may, in some cases, lead to different results. Therefore, the method of qualitative evaluation and weighting to effective objective factors is suggested.

The reformed Act of Check passed in 2018 has spurred innovations in check format, bringing actions, hearing, and banking matters. A number of such innovations are as follows: regarding the check format, it is not allowed to issue and endorse a check to the bearer’s order, and it is not allowed to endorse a check by hand; regarding the bringing an action and hearing, writs of execution are issued for bounced checks with the parallel of trial, and they can also be issued at the time of asking for a delayed settlement compensation, but not against the guarantor and endorser; and regarding the banking matters, the financial institutions are obligated to verify the credit rating for check book issuance, certificates of non-payment have undergone changes, insolvent and bankrupt persons cannot ask for a check book and liability of banks and credit institutions. Innovations regarding the check format, the impossibility of demanding a compensation for a delayed settlement, and the inability to issue a writ of execution against the guarantor and endorser are the disadvantages of the new act. The possibility of issuing a case check also avoids the accreditation and tax regulations. The new law does not address some of the former ambiguities, such as the nature of the documents issued by credit institutions and the timing of the check for claims that have different issuance and payment dates.

The civil law legal system, despite the fact doctrine is in a number of law sources, considers the absence of scientific theories as a barrier to accepting those doctrines as the official sources of law. But in the current times, the spread of hard cases, the diversity of judicial interpretations, domination of justice over order and the conceptual inadequacy of the laws have caused modern procedure to be influenced by other sources such as legal doctrine. Furthermore the law is not always determined and it is necessary for the judge to reconcile the rule from the subject, for interpret the capable law. To strength a decision during Judicial regulation and text interpretation and legal subject in order to justified the verdict, is a process that requires arguing. In this passage it is rational that legal doctrine becomes a powerful tool and hides behind the most important part of the verdict, namely, the part of justification, to show an emotional decision in a rational board. But the fundamental challenge, is to select the viewpoints from different verdicts of jurists.The suggested method is that the judge using different theories to give a reasonable face to his intuitive justice.

Totally Arbitration is divided to Voluntary Arbitration Clause and Compulsory Arbitration Clause. Arbitration Clause as a rule Has Contractual Nature .If The Content Of Arbitration Clause For The Reason Ambiguity Has Been Needed To The Interpretation And Arbitrator To Intended Detection Of Common Intention Of The Parties ,Having No Alternative Must To Interpret Of The Content Of Arbitration Clause ,Upon The Principles And Rules of Interpretation Of Contract .But Legislator In Some Cases Imposed On Will Of The Parties Of Contract ,Accepted Of The Arbitration Clause Or Referring Of Claims To The Jurisdiction Of Arbitral Tribunal And Contractual Nature Of Arbitration Clause Has Been Extinguished Or Limitation .In These Cases If Content Of The Arbitration Clause Faced With Ambiguity And Necessitate Of Interpretation, Arbitrator Must Intended To Detection Of The Legislator Will ,Upon The Principles And Rules of Interpretation Of statutes And Discussion Of Detection Of Natural Will And Common Intention Is Ceased .In This Article Interim Of Making Clear Nature And Criterion Of Distinction Of The Compulsory Arbitration Clause ,Causes And Grounds Of Independent Arbitration Clause Necessity From Basic Contract Present By Application Analysis And State Of Some Cases In The Law Of Iran.

The fact that foreign companies are treated like Iranian companies in Iran's legal system is a non-discrimination issue. Of course, the regulations of international trade law, which have been taken into consideration in the form of international organizations such as the World Trade Organization, have emphasized the necessity of observing the principle of non-discrimination in the behavior between domestic and foreign companies. In any case, the main question of the current research is that according to the rule of law in Iran's legal system, what is the difference between the laws of domestic and international companies? The hypothesis that is put against this question is that based on various legal articles, including Article 1 of the Companies Registration Law, foreign companies have rights, including the principle of freedom of commercial activity, the principle of eliminating discriminatory behavior, etc. There are also limitations in this field in the application of each of these rights, including the limitations of capital reduction and public order as major exceptions compared to Iranian companies.

The aim of this study was to re-examine the Quranic and jurisprudential evidences of selling self-help as one of the Remedies For Breach Of Contract for the purchase of medical equipment.

This research has been done by library studies and descriptive-analytical method. By referring to Quranic, narrative and scientific texts, the necessary information has been obtained and analyzed.

One of the problems that has arisen in recent years in the field of medical equipment is that for various reasons, including oppressive sanctions, some buyers or sellers of Iranian medical equipment are not able to pay the price or the goods and this factor causes uncertainty. The incidence of material damages and losses to medical equipment activists. The main question of the research is: "What is the ruling on Quranic and jurisprudential arguments regarding the sale of self-help (resale) as one of the Remedies For Breach Of Contract for the purchase of medical equipment?" The findings of the research indicate that the requirements of the holy verse "… فمن اعتدی علیکم فاعتدوا علیه بمثل ما اعتدی علیکم…" (Baqarah: 194) and verses 40 of Surah Shura and verse 126 of Surah An-Nahl and other jurisprudential narrations and rules, including the rule of no Loss principle in Islam and the Retalitation rule, as well as legal provisions in similar matters, not only do not contradict this, but also accept it. However, the principle of agreement must be kept and rights of the other party must be taken into account in this regard, and according to the holy verse "… لا تظلمون ولا تظلمون " (Baqarah: 279), neither party to the deal should be wronged or abused.

Medical equipment contractors can sell the property to another and exercise their rights in order to prevent further damage and uncertainty in the fate of the contract. However, this right and authority should not lead to "oppression", "loss" and "injustice" to the rights of the other party, but from the point of view of the Holy Quran and Islamic traditions, justice and fairness should be observed and the rights of the parties to the transaction should be exercised to the maximum.

According to the solutions provided in the law, the US Federal Reserve is one of the most independent central banks in the world. In Iran, in practice, the composition of the members of the Monetary and Credit Council and the accuracy of the legal conditions for dismissal and appointment of the Governor of the Central Bank and the review of changes in the management of the Central Bank after the change of governments indicate the Central Bank's dependence on the government. From a procedural point of view, a detailed study of the negotiations between members of parliament and the theories of the Guardian Council and the approvals of the Expediency Discernment Council, while passing the relevant laws, shows that there is no correct idea of the central bank's duties and its independence. Regardless of the central bank's domestic goodwill, internationally, the central bank's independence makes it impossible for other countries to seize the central bank's foreign assets under the pretext of the central bank's dependence on the government. In this article, an attempt has been made to compare the independence of the central bank in Iranian and American law with a comparative approach.

AbstractNowadays, Arbitration is an effective framework for resolving international commercial disputes. Most of the issues related to the international arbitration process allocate for the status, rights and obligations of disputant parties and the arbitrator. The Arbitration Agreement which is the legal basis of the arbitral proceedings only creates the legal relationship between disputant parties, therefore it does not deal usually with the legal relationship between the arbitrator and disputant parties that is effective in their mutual rights and obligations. The authority and position of the arbitrator empowers him to agree on his rights and obligations with disputant parties and whenever the expectation of the parties may endanger the arbitration process he will stand against the unreasonable demands of them and will organize their rights and obligations within a legal formal framework. The best framework accepted in some jurisdictions is the establishment of a separate contract known as the “arbitrator's contract”. The contents of this agreement include the most important rights and obligations of disputant parties and arbitrator which affect their position.

The present research study intends to investigate the concepts of transparency, confidentiality and privacy within the scope of Investor-State Arbitration and International Commercial Arbitration.Transparency, confidentiality and privacy are the main pillars of international arbitration which have a close relationship together, however in some cases they are in a controversial situation. The tension between confidentiality and transparency comes into existence when the issue of public interest plays the main role in international arbitration. In such situations, private interest of individual parties, involving confidentiality and privacy, conflicts with the interest of general public, involving openness of the arbitration proceedings and access to all documents concerned. Then it becomes important to know how to make a balance between these competing concepts, what their value is and how their relationship is in controversial situations of international arbitration. For this purpose, the first Part of the paper intends to define some key terms such as “confidentiality,” “privacy” and “transparency” related to international arbitration. The second Part challenges the issues of Transparency and Confidentiality in the context of International Commercial Arbitration and Investor-State Arbitration. The third part concludes by analyzing how to make an equilibrium between transparency and confidentiality in controversial situations of international arbitration including Investor-State Arbitration and International Commercial Arbitration.

Share redemption occurs when a company rebuys its shares at a specific time after it had sold them to another party.  After redemption, these shares transform into treasury shares and will remain as such until resold again. The ways of redemption which effect shareholders’ rights include:  Repurchase from Market, Off-Market Repurchase, Fixed Price Tender Offer Repurchase and Dutch Auction. The redemption has an influence on share’s financial and management rights and the company, as the treasury shares’ owner will lose most of its shares’ rights by explicit stipulation of acts and most legal principles.

One of the issues that have caused debates in various legal systems is the effect of transcending the scope of activities of business companies by their directors. British law in this area has undergone a marked transformation. In the past, legal acts outside the scope of the activities of the company under "Ultra vires Rule" were considered void. However, today, the rule is more flexible in practice and if the legal actions of the company’s directors with contracting third parties are beyond the scope of the activities of the company, such legal acts will be binding on the company. In Iranian law, many lawyers, by accepting and applying the "Principle of Expertise", believe that the scope of the activities of the company should be considered a form of limitation of the jurisdiction of such legal persons, and, as a result, legal actions beyond the limits of the said should be considered absolutely void and irrevocable. Considering the rules of the British legal system, as well as the Iranian trade law and its amending law, indicates the necessity of legislative reform in Iran.

The main criterion of the evaluation of the damages caused by the delay in the execution of the construction contracts is the fairness of the liquidated damage clause and its proportionality with the actual damage. The parties of the contract must be able to evaluate the damages by forecasting and calculating the actual damages, while avoiding the purpose to punish the party who violates the contract. The main criterion in determining the amount of the liquidated damage is its relative proportional to the actual damages and its fairness, and failure to comply with this criteria will cause the court, by ignoring the contractual agreement, to avoid applying and enforcing the clause and calculates the damages and determines it according to general principles and in some cases adjusting it by interfering in the scope of the partie's agreement. In addition, in accordance with the provisions of most countries and principles of international trade law, if a part of the contract is completed and delivered or, in the case of which the contractor has intentionally delayed, the amount specified is not claimed and the courts are allowed to modify. Article 230 of the Civil Code, which regulates the determination of the amount of damages, is not in accordance with the rules of the other countries and the international customs governing this matter, and also faces serious challenges in national scene. It seems that in order to overcome this problem and prevent its harmful and unfair results, it would be better to consider the clause illegal if the amount is exaggerated or if the party is possessor unduly.

Company as a kind of legal persons contains lawful privileges of persons in law. Nationality is an important description and has notable impact in this ground. In spite of the different opinions for this subject certainly, companies have to have nationality of one country. In International or national law, the nationality of the companies will be determined on the basis of some acceptable rules such as Ezterar and Nafye Sabil. Hence in this paper the authors explain the conditions of these rules and the determination of nationality in the commercial companies completely.

The principle of sovereignty of will and contractual freedom states that individual's wills govern both the formation of contracts and the consequences thereof, and all legal relations. According to this principle stated in Iran's Civil Code, Art. 10, uncertain (untitled) contracts the principle of freedom of contract is declared in most of legal systems and international commercial instruments. The first article of "principles of European contract law (PECL) (2002) declares that Parties are free to enter into a contract and to determine its contents….Beside this article the theory of The necessity of the rational, fair with good faith governance in limiting freedom of contracts in international commercial contracts" with the other international principles could complete international law and It supplements the provisions of the Principles, and it may take precedence over other provisions of these Principles when a strict adherence to them would lead to a manifestly unjust result.
The result of the theory is that the principle of good faith and fair dealing must be respectful for governments in their sovereignty so governments mustn’t inter the contract for their own personal political goals and purposes or by irrationally legislation such as article 968 of Iranian civil code or article 477 of Iranian criminal procedures code harm merchants.