رضا صدرآبادی حقیقی

 The inadequacy of the results of a single study and the need to combine the findings by scientists has led to the development of methods that allow combining the results of many independent studies. (Anjomani, 2022). The genus Thymus from the mint family (Lamiaceae) has more than 215 species in the world, of which 18 species have been identified in Iran. The medicinal plant) Thymus vulgaris L. (is one of the most important medicinal plants in the world, which is used Abundant in the pharmaceutical and food industries, it has a special place among medicinal plants (Gigord et al., 1999). The results of the application of different amounts of N, P, and K fertilizers on the growth and yield of Thymus vulgaris L. (showed the highest stem height (37. 38 cm), the yield of fresher plants (42. 78 grams per plant) and the highest the percentage of essential oil was 0. 73% in combined NPK treatment (Sharaf Zadeh, 2011). Research has shown that the highest percentage and yield of essential oil (363. 0% and 277. 00 ml per plant) was obtained from the plants cultivated with Nitroxin biofertilizer, followed by Biophosphorus and mycorrhizal fertilizers, respectively. (Mohammad pour Vashvaee et al., 2014). Meta-analysis combines the information of studies, pays attention to the comparison between studies discovers new results from previous studies, and can introduce new fields of research or new research questions.

 To perform this meta-analysis, the method introduced by Cooper was used. This method has the following steps: searching and selecting studies (data collection), coding the characteristics of each study, extracting data suitable for meta-analysis, and analyzing the data. In this research, standardized mean difference and correlation coefficient were used. It has been used to determine the size of the Hedges effect (g) (Porasmeili, 2011). Since the intended benefit in this meta-analysis is the difference between the averages of the treatment group (experiment) and the control group (control), in the meta-analysis method for the effect sizes in this research, the standardized mean difference method and the correlation coefficient to determine the Hedges effect size value (g)) has been used (Pouresmaeily et al., 2011). The standard difference between the mean of the control treatment and the mean of the experimental treatment is called the effect size (g) Equation (3 (and (4(. It was used in performance between control and experimental treatments (Cohen, 1988).  (3)In this regard, M1and M2 is the average performance of experimental treatment and control treatment and , standard deviation, respectively (Cohen, 1988). ( In this regard, S1 and S2 are respectively the square root of the integrated variance of two treatment groups. If there is heterogeneity between studies, the random effect model is used. I2index is one of the important indices in determiningthe degree of heterogeneity between studies.In general, the degree of heterogeneity in the I2index is determined in the following three ways: I2≤25% indicates low heterogeneity. 50 ≤I2≤ 75% indicates moderate heterogeneity; that is, half of the total variability among effect sizes is not due to sampling error and is due to heterogeneity between studies.and I2≥ 75% indicates high heterogeneity (Higgins & green, 2011)Among more than 60 domestic studies and 28 foreign studies. The number of 15 studies that can be meta-analyzed in different subjects: "dry weight, percentage of essential oil and yield of thyme oil" were selected 102 effect sizes were ready for meta-analysis, and the rest of the studies were excluded. All the extracted data were transferred to comprehensive meta-analysis software for meta-analysis. The results reported about each of the variables were analyzed using comprehensive meta-analysis software (CMA.Version 2) developed in the United States.

 Among more than 60 domestic studies and 28 foreign studies, 15 meta-analysis studies with 53 effect sizes related to the effect of different amounts of cow manure (30, 60, and 90 tons per hectare) on dry weight, essential oil percentage, and thyme oil yield were selected and ready for meta-analysis, and the rest of the studies were excluded. The results obtained in individual studies mostly emphasize the significance and positive effect of animal manure (cow) on quantitative and qualitative yield, while meta-analysis results show that studies of the effect of 30 tons of cow manure per hectare with an effect size (0.502 g) for weight dry and (g=0.482) were positive and incremental for oil yield and were significant with 99% confidence (P≤0.01) for the mentioned traits. These studies were heterogeneous based on the I2 index for dry weight (I2= 79.48) and for oil yield (I2= 86.79), and after drawing a funnel plot and performing the Bag and Mazumdar test, it was observed that they were symmetrical and had no diffusion error. And the obtained results are recommendable. However, the characteristics of plant height and essential oil percentage are not significant, and more studies are needed. Studies on the effect of chemical fertilizers only on the increase in dry weight yield with the effect size (g = 0.614) have been positive and significant (p≤0.01). These studies were heterogeneous based on the I2index for dry weight (I2= 93.79) and after drawing a funnel plot and performing the Bag and Mazumdar test, their symmetry and lack of diffusion error were observed, and the obtained results are recommendable. However, the effect of nitrogen chemical fertilizer on the qualitative traits of essential oil percentage and oil yield is not significant. Contrary to the results of the research that declared the effect of chemical fertilizers and different levels of nitrogen to be significant on dry weight, percentage of essential oil, and oil yield, studies on the effect of biofertilizers respectively with the effect size (g = 0.789) on dry weight (g = 0.773) (g=0.593) had the most increasing and positive effect on oil yield and essential oil percentage, and it was significant (P≥0.01). These studies were heterogeneous and symmetrical based on the I2 index for oil yield (I2=83.34) and essential oil percentage (I2=77.71), and there was no diffusion error, and its results are recommendable. The results of other researchers have considered the use of organic and biological fertilizers to increase and improve the quantitative and qualitative traits of the thyme medicinal plant, and to recommend these types of fertilizers; they have preferred these types of fertilizers over chemical fertilizers, the traits that were not significant or their studies were not symmetrical in all treatments The subject needs to conduct studies with higher accuracy for recommendation

Our country due to relying on Faryab agriculture, extremely exposed to salinization of land and water resources. Salinity generally has a significant effect on all morphological, physiological, biochemical, anatomical traits of most plants and It has a negative effect on growth, survival and plant production. In order to study the effect of irrigation water quality and application of silicon, nanosilicon and superabsorbent polymer on the yield and amount of active ingredients of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Experiment as split plots in a randomized complete block design, in three replications and three cropping years was done in a farm located in Ziauddin section of Torbat Heydariyeh city. The main factor of irrigation water quality in two levels (Includes water with electrical conductivity of 2 dS/m as a control and water with an electrical conductivity of 6 dS/m) and sub-factor of application of silicon and adsorbent polymer in six levels, (Includes non-consumption as a control, Silicon, nanosilicon each with a concentration of 1.5 per thousand, Bolourab A (0.4 g/kg dry weight of soil). Silicon with Bolourab A and Nano Silicon with Bolourab A.). The study included morphological characteristics such as number of leaves, corm, flowers and stigmas per hectare, leaf yield, corm, flowers and stigmas per hectare, Leaf length and width, average weight of corm and flowers, stigma length and Physiological characteristics included chlorophyll, safranal, crocin and picrocrocin. The results showed that salinity reduced and consumed silicon and super absorbent in both salinity treatments and lack of salinity stress significantly increases important traits of reproductive growth, Includes, Flower number, average stigma length, average weight of a single, yield of flower, yield of stigma and the amount of active ingredients in the stigma (Crocin, Safranal, Picrocrocin) it was tested every 3 years. The effect of treatments on vegetative growth traits of saffron leaves, includes leaf number, leaf yield, chlorophyll A and B content, also on the characteristics of produced female corms including total number of female corms, average corm weight, dry matter and yield of corm. The use of nanosilicon together with superabsorbent in saline conditions increases the flower and stigma yield of saffron in the second year by 46.8% and 54.3%, respectively, compared to the first year, and also increases the flower and stigma yield by 60.1% and 57.8% in the third year compared to the second year. The experimental results showed that the combined application of nano silicon and super absorbent increased the quantitative and qualitative yield of saffron in salinity conditions.

In order to investigate the effect of deficit irrigation on vegetative growth characteristics and potato tuber and the effect of foliar application of chitosan and salicylic acid on yield and physiological characteristics of experimental potatoes as a split plot in a randomized complete block design with three replications in 2019 at an agricultural reaearch station in the city of Fariman. Experimental treatments included irrigation levels (60, 80 and 100% water requirement) and foliar application of chitosan and salicylic acid (control treatment, 2 g/l chitosan, 0.5 g/l salicylic acid and combined treatment with chitosan and salicylic acids). Irrigation levels in main plots and foliar spraying treatments were included in sub-treatments. Deficit irrigation treatments were applied 20 days after after plant emergence and at each irrigation period, and foliar application of chitosan and salicylic acid was performed in two stages during the growing season: at the flowering stage (beginning of tuber development), and at the mid-growth stage of tubers. The results showed that by reducing the irrigation volume by 20%, the same performance can be achieved with the performance in full irrigation conditions. Foliar application chitosan and salicylic acid also yielded different results. Foliar application of chitosan prevented a decrease in chlorophyll a concentration as the most important leaf photosynthetic pigment in 80% irrigation treatment. Other pigments showed similar behavior to chlorophyll a in solutions sprayed with chitosan or a combination of chitosan with salicylic acid. Proline, free phenols and soluble carbohydrates as secondary metabolites that undergo stress-induced osmotic regulation of leaf cells also had higher concentrations in chitosan foliar application at 80% irrigation treatment than their control treatment. Foliar application of chitosan and salicylic acid separately or in combination in treatments that were irrigated at 20 and 40% also maintained the concentration of glutathione peroxidase. Despite the above effects, foliar treatments could not clearly have a significant effect on glandular function.It does this by playing an important role in counteracting oxidative stress and balancing oxygen free radicals, as well as its role in protecting cell membranes, especially under stress conditions. According to the results of this experiment, it can be concluded that although these compounds have a significant role in the interaction of potato plant with deficit irrigation conditions, but the time and dose of its use requires more detailed research. Time and dose used that can compensate for the effects of stress and improve yield in deficit irrigation treatments. 

In recent years, due to climate change, the planting of millets has become of particular importance, necessitating conducting further research on their quantitative and qualitative attributes. Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is widely known as a multipurpose crop in many regions of the world. It provides nutritious food for humans, feeds for poultry, and fodder for ruminants. About 20 different species of millet have been cultivated throughout the world at different points in time. Commonly cultivated millet species include proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.R. Br.), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), Kodo millet (Paspalum setaceum), foxtail millet (Setaria italica L. Beauv.). Little millet provides excellent support for nervous system health by helping to restore nerve cell function, regenerate myelin fiber, and intensify brain cell metabolism. Millets are also rich in micronutrients such as niacin, B-complex vitamins, Vitamin B6, and folic acid. Millets generally contain significant amounts of essential amino acids, particularly those containing sulfur (methionine and cysteine) ( Torabi, 2015). Plant density is among the agricultural practices that greatly influences grain yield and yield components of pearl millet as it determines the inter-and intra-plant competition for groundwater and soil nutrients during the growing season. Due to the development of human societies, food security has become a priority(Khajeh pour, 2012). Technological advancements and the introduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides have provided sufficient quantities of food in recent decades, but food quality is questioned. Fertilizers from natural sources might be a practical solution. Coastal farmers in various countries have been applying seaweed for crop growth and development for many years. Nowadays, with technological development, some species of seaweed such as Ascophyllum nodosum are cultivated and processed as seaweed extract alone or mixed with other fertilizers to be used by farmers) Manea and Abbas, 2018.)

To investigate the effects of different densities of millet and bio-fertilizer application on morphological and physiological yield and yield components of three millet cultivars, a factorial experiment in a randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted in Mashhad in 2021. In the experiment, three density levels of millet (300,000, 400,000, and 500,000 plants per hectare), and two levels of seaweed (Ascophyllum nodosum) bio-fertilizer in quantity of 0 and 1 L per hectare, as well as three cultivars of millet (Bastan, Pishahang, and Mehran) were applied. In this experiment, grain yield, biomass yield, harvest index, 1000-seed weight, plant height and protein percentage were measured.

The analysis of variance showed that the effects of cultivar and density on grain yield were significant at the probability of 1% where the highest grain yield with an average of 4444.1 kg/ha was obtained from Mehran cultivar at a density of 400 thousand plants per hectare. The lowest was related to Pishahang cultivar at a density of 400,000 plants per hectare with an average yield of 2321.5 kg per hectare. The effect of bio-fertilizer application was also significant on the yield and yield components at the probability of 1%. The highest harvest index value (0.29) was obtained from the Mehran cultivar at a density of 400,000 plants per hectare. The examination of the trend of change in the biological yield and harvest index of this cultivar also indicated that with increasing density, the biological yield increased and the harvest index decreased. Additionally, the highest biomass yield (7629/6 kg/ha) was observed in Pishahang cultivar at a density of 400,000 plants per hectare, both by bio-fertilizer application.

Due to the increasing population and food shortage, increasing agricultural production is becoming more important, increasing the area under cultivation and increasing yield per unit area are two ways to increase agricultural production. Mixed cultivation is a low-income agricultural method that aims to make optimal use of land, light and water to produce a desirable level of crops.In order to investigate the effect of intercropping and different densities of quinoa and guar cultivation in the climatic conditions of Mashhad in May 2019 in the research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University located in Golbahar. This factorial study was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Factors tested included (Q: pure culture of quinoa, G: pure culture of guar and quinoa + guar in 1: 1, 1: 2 and 2: 1 row ratio) and plant density (D1: 10 plants, D2: 15 and D3: 20 plants per square meter). Plant density was adjusted by changing the distance between plants on the row. Row spacing treatments included: 20 cm equivalent to 10 plants per square meter, 15 cm, equivalent to 15 plants per square meter and 10 cm, equivalent to 20 plants per square meter.The results showed that the main and interaction effects of intercropping ratios and plant density on quinoa and guava seed yield and different indices of intercropping usefulness (land parity ratio (LER), actual reduction yield of guava (AYLG) and quinoa (AYLQ) Quinoa (RCCQ) and Guar (RCCG), Income Equality Ratio (IER) and Mixed Cultivation Profitability (IA) were significant at the level of 1% probability and the values for the mentioned traits were obtained. 1.21, 0.08, 0.83, 2.99, 1.17, 1.80 and 0.42. respectively So that the highest yield of quinoa and guar seeds with 1480 and 2655 g/m2, respectively, of quinoa and guar mixed cultivation treatments with ratios of 2 rows of quinoa and 1 row of guar at a density of 10 plants per square meter and for guar from culture treatment, respectively. Pure guar was obtained from the same plant density. The lowest yields of quinoa and guar seeds with an average of 115 and 269 g / m2 were obtained from the density of 20 plants per square meter and the ratio of mixed cultivation of two rows of quinoa and 1 guar gum, which is due to intra-species competition due to Increase plant density.The highest amount of quinoa LER and total was related to the treatment of two rows of quinoa and one row of guar gum at a density of 15 plants per square meter. For Guar gum, the LER level in all studied treatments was less than one. The total LER in 2G: 1Q treatment was less than one in all three densities, which indicates that increasing the share of guar in the composition, led to a decrease in total LER. This may be due to the very low yield of guar gum in 2G: 1Q treatment. In the other treatments studied, the LER level was higher than one, which indicates the usefulness of intercropping compared to pure culture. According to the results, the planting density of 10 plants per square meter was the best planting density and the ratio of mixed cultivation of 2 quinoa drives and a row of guar was the best treatment in this study, which can be recommended to farmers.

In order to study effect of seedling age and plant density on yield and yield components of rice (Sadri cultivar), a field experiment was conducted at the Ordukhan Agricultural Research Center, Heart Province - Afghanistan (Geographical longitude: 62°11'29" east and geographical latitude: 34°20'35" north) during the cropping season 2017-2018. The experiment was laid out in complete block design with three replications. Seeding ages with three levels (20, 30 and 40 days) were considered as main plots and plant densities with four levels (13, 17, 22 and 33 plants/m2) were allocated as sub plots. Analysis of variance showed that the effect of seedling age on number of tillers per plant, numbers of grains per panicle and grain yield was significant. The plant density had significant effect on all traits (expect, 1000grains weight). Interaction of two factors had no significant effect on any of the traits. The means comparison showed that the highest of number grains per panicle and grain yield were obtained for 30 days seedling age. Also, the highest of number of tiller per plant, number of fertile tiller per plant, number of grains per panicle and percent of unfilled grain were obtained by 13 plants per m2. But the highest biological yield, harvest index (HI) and grain yield obtained by 33 plants per m2. Based on simple correlation coefficient of traits, grain yield had significant positive correlation with biological yield, number fertile tiller per plant and number grains per panicle.

In recent years, food production known as a main challenge for increasing human population. Along with the development of agricultural systems, weed management practices have been developed to sustainable management. Allelopathy is the biochemical interaction of inhibition and promotion within plants or micro-organisms. Allelopathy considered as a mechanism of some plants was proposed firstly by Molish in 1937. Allelopathy has a broad application prospects in increasing crop production, plant protection, and biological control. There are many known allelochemicals: water soluble organic acid, straight-chain alcohols, aliphatic series, aldehydes, ketones, simple unsaturated lactone, long-chain fatty acids, multi-alkyne, naphthoquinone, anthraquinone acid, quinone compound, simple phenols, benzoic acid and its derivatives, cinnamic acid and its derivatives, coumarin, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, steroids, amino acids, peptides, alkaloids, cyanohydrin, sulfide, glucosinolates, nucleotides. While phenolic acids and the terpenoid compounds are more common types. Giradol (Chrozophora tinctoria L.) known as an invasive annual summer plant that belongs to Ephorbiaceae family. Giradol not only can reduce the crop productivity by competition for light, water and nutrient mineral but also can decrease crop growth and productivity as it has the phenolic components such as tannins, saponins, cumarins, phenylpropanoid glycosides, and flavonoids. Thus, it may have allelopathic effects. Giradol have been reported in the wide range of fields in Khorasan Razavi province. This study was conducted for determining allelopathic effects of Giradol on tomato as the main crop being cultivated in Khorasan Razavi province.

In order to evaluate allelopathic effects of Giradol on seed germination of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum mill.), this study was conducted in weed research lab of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad on the basis of a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with factorial arrangement with 4 replications in 2014. The treatments consisted of Giradol organs at 4 levels (root, stem, leaf and total plant without inflorescence) and their aqueous extract concentrations at 11 level (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10%). The plant organs were harvested from Fariman in the summer of 2014. The samples were carefully washed and then dried. The sample were ground and 10 g for each sample was added to 100 ml distilled water. The samples were shacked for 12 h, and the shaking process was done again after 72 h. The extracts were passed through the filter paper. The stoke solutions were diluted. Then, 6 ml from each extract was added to each experimental unit. The petri dishes were placed in a germinator at 25/15°C in 45/65% relative humidity with a 16/8 h day/night regime, respectively. The measuring traits were germination percent, germination rate, means of germination time, vigor, and root length, shoot length, root length to shoot length ratio, root dry weight, shoot dry weight, and seedling weight.

The result of this experiment showed that concentration of aqueous extract had a significant effect on germination percent, germination rate, means of germination time, vigor, and root length, shoot length, root length to shoot length ratio, root dry weight, shoot dry weight and seedling weight at 0.1% probability. Same results have been reported by Seyyedi et al (8) for allelopathic effect of castor bean organs on germination percent, germination rate and means of germination time of dodder. The variation response of different concentration of castor bean aqueous extract on germination of seeds dodder has been reported. The result of this experiment also showed that germination percent, germination rate, means of germination time, shoot length and root length had no significant effects by the type of plant organs whereas other trials showed significant effects. Generally, the leaf and stem water extracts had the highest negative effects on germination percent compared to the root and whole plant Giradol extracts. The same results reported by Rooffard and Omidbeigi (7) on the influence of extract concentration on the germination percent.

The results showed that the concentration of the aqueous extract significantly affects the germination and seedling growth. Furthermore, the extract of different organs adversely influences the germination percentage, germination rate, mean of germination time, and shoot length. It seems that proper management of Giradol weeds before and during tomato growth can lead to higher germination and more uniform plant emergence and finally can be of help for enhancing crop yield.

A major constraint limiting saffron (Crocus sativus L.) cultivation is the difficulty of obtaining high quality corms for propagation. This study was conducted to compare foliar application effect of three fertilizer types at different times on corm growth and production in saffron as a split plot expreriment in randomized complete block design with three replications during 2013-2014 growing season in Ein abad, in a village in Torbat-e Heydarie of Khorasan Razavi Province. Main plots consisted of Delfan Plus, Ultrasol 1, 2 fertilizers and control, sub plots were three application different times include 1&25 March and 14 April 2014, respectively. Measured traits was including dry weight, replacement corms size and the total number of mother and replacement corms. Analysis of variance showed significant effects of different treatments of foliar application and foliar spray time on size, weight of replacement corms in saffron, but the effect of treatments on the total number of mother and replacement corms per unit area and their interaction effects were not significant. In conclusion, results of this study demonstrated all fertilizers compared to control treatment and Delfan Plus fertilizer compared to other fertilizers and also control treatment (respectively 13.5, 13.6 and 13%) had more increasingly effect on size, weight of replacement corms. Among foliar spray time treatments, on 25 March, 2014 had superiority in positive impact on size, weight of replacement corms compared to other times. So that foliar spray time on 25 March, 2014 compared to 1March and 14 April 2014 caused to increase 6.6% and 11% respectively of daughter corm size, therefore among applied fertilizers, Delfan plus was best fertilizer and also among application times, on 25 March, 2014 was the most appropriate time.

Energy flow is one of the most important issues in agroecology. The amount of energy that is consumed in different agroecosystems not only depends on the type of crop but also on the material and methods that is used in its production. Potato plants are one of the most important crops that is produced in Torbat Heidarieh region, Khorasan Razavi Province of Iran. Different irrigation methods influence the energy consumption and production. Thus, the aim of this study is to compare energy efficiency of potato with different irrigation methods.

In order to evaluate and compare the efficiency of energy consumption in potato production based furrow,  sprinkle and drip irrigation methods, a study was carried out at 11 fields in the Jolgeh Rokh Torbat Heidarieh region in 2013- 2014 . The comparison was performed using a completel randomized, unbalanced design. In which the type of irrigation system was considered as the treatment and fields that were matched to each irrigation system as a replication. The studied traits included the amount of input and output energy, the equivalent energy of all inputs, and energy use efficiency, net energy, energy production and specific energy.                                                                                                                                         

The largest amount of energy consumed by the human labor was due to furrow irrigation. The highest average of fossil fuel consumption was due to furrow irrigation method followed by sprinkle and drip irrigation. The amount of electricity consumed in the drip irrigation method had the highest amount compared to the other two methods. The most energy consumed by nitrogen fertilizers was related to furrow irrigation method, and the methods of irrigation of droplets and sprinklers in this regard were ranked in the following order, respectively. The amount of energy consumed by phosphorus fertilizers in irrigation was the least amount of droplets. This amount was in sprinkler irrigation and furrow irrigation respectively, although there was no significant difference between the two methods. The energy of using potassium fertilizers in the highest irrigation system was similar to the other irrigation systems. The energy consumption of herbicides was highest in drip methods and furrow irrigation was in the next category. Energy consumption of machinery was highest in sprinkler irrigation method. In the recent method, energy consumption of machinery was about half of the energy consumption of the total inputs. Indirect energy consumption for drip irrigation system was 6868 MJ.ha-1 and in sprinkle irrigation 2756 MJ.ha-1. Energy produced by seed was highest in drip irrigation method and the lowest in sprinkle irrigation. The total amount of input and output energy in sprinkler irrigation method was the highest (106674.24 and 162000 MJ.ha-1), followed by drip irrigation (97807.82 and 151000 MJ.ha-1) and furrow irrigation (92539.61 and 139000 MJ.ha-1) were placed in the following categories. The energy use efficiency of the drip irrigation method 1.6 was more than other irrigation methods. Production energy in terms of amount of drip and furrow irrigation was the highest 0.44 and in sprinkle irrigation 0.41. Net energy was the highest in sprinkler irrigation (53392.18 MJ.ha-1) and the lowest in furrow irrigation (46660.38 MJ.ha-1). Production energy was highest in drip and furrow irrigation (0.44 and 0.43) and lowest in sprinkle irrigation (0.41). The specific energy in furrow irrigation (2.36) was higher than the other methods and in the drip irrigation with the lowest (2.32).                                                                               

According to the results of the present research, in spite of higher yield of potatoes under sprinkle and drip irrigation systems, there were not significant differences among the energy indices; energy efficiency, energy productivity, and special energy; of three systems. This was due to more total input energy in the sprinkle and drip systems. Because the machinery and installations energy input in furrow irrigation system were lower than two other systems.

Saffron (Crocus sativa L.) is the most expensive spice. Better farming and improvement agronomic operations are process of production for qualitative and quantitative improvement of the product as a result of research, education and promotion of new methods of planting, growing and harvesting product. Application of new techniques to saffron could help to compete in global markets with saffron produced in other countries. The researches that have been conducted about the influence of nutrients on saffron quality and quantity, have shown that flower yield and stigma yield stigma were affected by nutrient positively. In this paper we aimed to study the effects of two types of bio-fertilizers (Humus-s and Aa40) and different concentrations on the flower yield, daughter corm yield, stigma yield, leaf weight and leaf length of saffron under the climatic conditions of Kardeh, Iran. In order to study the effects of two types of bio-fertilizers and their concentrations on flower yield, stigma yield and daughter corm yield of saffron, a field experiment was performed in a 4-year field at Kardeh dam during 2016-2017. This experiment was carried out as two-factorial based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The first factor comprised of two types of bio-fertilizers (such as Humus-s and Aa40) and the second factor included concentrations of 0, 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5 per 1000 as leaf spraying in two times. Fresh weight of flower, dry weight of stigma, fresh weight of stigma, dry weight of flower without stigma, fresh weight of flower without stigma, fresh weight of leaf, dry weight of leaf, weight of daughter corms, number of daughter corms, fresh weight of stigma, fresh weight of flower without stigma, flower number, number of daughter corm in different weight groups such as 0.1-5, 5.1-10, 10.1-15, and >15 g and leaf length of saffron were studied traits. The treatments were run as an analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine if significant differences existed among treatments means. Multiple comparison tests were conducted for significant effects using the Duncan’s test. The results indicated that the fertilizers had not significantly effect on none of studied traits. The effect of different concentrations was significant on fresh weight of flower, dry weight of stigma, dry weight of flower without stigma, fresh weight of leaf, weight of daughter corms, fresh weight of stigma, fresh weight of flower without stigma, number of flower, number of daughter corms with >15 g weight and leaf length of saffron. The interaction effect between fertilizer type and concentrations had significantly effect on fresh weight of leaf. The highest dry weight of stigma and dry weight of daughter corms were observed in 2.5 per 1000 with 1239.98 and 4955 g.m-2, respectively. The lowest for the traits were related to control with 930.56 and 4085 g.m-2, respectively. The maximum and the minimum number of daughter corms were obtained in 2 per 1000 and control with 415 and 380.33 No.m-2, respectively. It seems that foliar spraying had positive effects on growth and yield of flower, stigma and daughter corm of saffron.  So, it is recommended that foliar spraying is used in the production of saffron and besides reducing use of other common fertilizers, other benefits of this fertilizers are enjoyed. Foliar spraying in order to accurate control of releasing nutrients can be an effective step towards achieving sustainable agriculture and compatible with the environment. Using foliar spraying as a substitute for conventional iron chelate fertilizers, element of iron fertilizer is released gradually and in a controlled way and as a result provides nutrient to plant more effectively.

In order to evaluate the effects of foliar application of elements such as Zinc, Iron and manganese on yield and yield components of bread wheat cv. Pishgam an experiment was conducted based on a RCBD with three replications at Torbat-e-jam in 2015-2016. Factors were foliar application including Iron, Zinc, Manganese, Iron+Zinc, Iron+Manganese, Zinc+Manganese, Iron+Zinc+Manganese and control treatment. Foliar application was done using micronutrients chelates at the amount of one per thousand at stem elongation and flowering stages. The results showed that foliar application had significant effect on plant height, spike length, the number of grains per spike, and harvest index. Foliar application increased plant height significantly. The highest plant height obtained from application of Iron+Manganese, Iron+Zinc+Manganese and Zinc+Manganese. The maximum length of the spike was seen in foliar application of Iron, Zinc, Iron+Manganese which had not significant difference with control treatment. The number of grains per spike in Zinc and Zinc+Iron+Manganese treatments were higher than control. Generally, it seems that none of foliar application treatments could increase the grain yield compared to control treatment.

In this research, biological characteristics of Balangu seed in response to temperature were evaluated. Germination responses and cardinal temperatures were evaluated using dent-like, segmented, beta and quadratic regression models and regression coefficients (a and b), correlation of determinant (R2), correlation coefficient (r), and significant level functions of predicted values versus observed ones were used to find the appropriate models. The results showed that the germination of Balangu is possible at a range of 5 to 25 °C. The highest germination percentage was detected at 20°C (98.5%). Moreover, at 20°C temperature the highest seedling growth and less time to shoot emergence (60.03 mm and 58 h respectively) was detected. Segmented model was superior compared to other models, therefore, this model is recommended for quantifying biological parameters and seedling emergence of Balangu. Temperatures of 1°C, 22.6°C and 30°C were the cardinal temperatures for seed germination (minimum, optimum and maximum, respectively). According to the results of this research, Balangu is the psychrophile plants and appropriate temperature germination is 20°C to 22.6°C. In this research, a proposed equation entitled of "Germination Value (GV)" for the simultaneous evaluation of seed germination and seedling growth per unit of time was introduced.

Today, due to increasing world population, food needs to be provided from different ways. The white button mushroom has also become an important constituent of a healthy diet. Their nutritional value relies on relatively high protein, minerals, vitamins, essential amino acids content and low calories. Mushroom mycelia growth and mushroom development are not only related to genetic factors but also depends on environmental, chemical, and microbiological conditions. Casing soil can protect the compost against desiccation, supporting the mushroom against pests and diseases and providing sporophores development and development and growth of mushroom by gas exchange. Casing layer provides an environmental change in which the mushroom shifts from a vegetative stage to a reproductive one due to microorganisms in the casing soil. Casing soil bacteria influence productivity, product quality and uniformity. Physical and chemical properties of a good casing should be high porosity and water holding capacity (WHC), pH range from 7.2 to8.2, low content of soluble inorganic and organic nutrients and free of disease and pests. Many materials, alone or in combination, have been used as casing both commercially and experimentally, although only a few have been shown to be practical application. Peat is generally regarded as the most suitable casing. Because of its unique water holding and structural properties, it is widely accepted as ideal for the purposes of casing. Peats has a neutral pH and because of it contains organic matter and granular structure can stay porous even after a consecutive irrigation, hold moisture, allows appropriate gaseous exchanges and supports microbial population to release hormone-like substances which are very likely involved in stimulating the initiation of fruit bodies. Peat and limestone commonly used as a casing soil, however problems associated with its use, especially viability, depletion of reserves and alteration of ecosystems, have led to the search for alternative materials.
In order to investigate the effect of different compositions of casing soil on the white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus Longe) cultivation, an experiment was carried out in laboratory of mushroom research, Department of Industrial Fungi Biotechnology, Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (ACECR- Khorasan Razavi), in 2015. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with 8 treatments and 3 replications. The treatments were including peat soil (100%), peat soil (60%) vermicompost (40%), peat soil (60%) cocopeat (40%), peat soil (60%) activated carbon (40%), peat soil (60%) spent mushroom compost (40%), peat soil (60%) vermicompost (30%) activated carbon (10%), peat soil (60%) cocopeat (30%) activated carbon (10%), peat soil (60%) spent mushroom compost (30%) activated carbon(10%). The treatments were applied on the compost block (40 × 60 × 20 cm sizes), that inoculated with the mushroom spawn, commercial line A15. The investigated characteristics including mushrooms yield, mean of mushroom weight, number of mushrooms per square meter, mean of stipe length, mean of cape diameter, which was measured in each harvest flash, separately. The traits were measured three times from casing to first harvest flash and harvest period.
The results showed that the longest duration between casing to first flashing belonged to peat soil (60%) spent mushroom compost (40%). The lowest duration belonged to peat soil (60%) cocopeat(40%), peat soil (60%) activated carbon (40%) and peat soil (60%) cocopeat (30%) activated carbon (10%). Treatments with the lowest duration between casing to first harvest flash, produced the most yield. The results also revealed that casing soils treatments contained cocopeat(40%) and cocopeat(30%) active carbon(10%) had the highest yield, fruit number, fruiting period and shortest duration from casing to first harvest flash as a good characteristic, although the mean of mushrooms weight and diameter of cape were lower than other treatments that it affect on marketing quality. Two treatments including spent mushroom compost (40%) and spent mushroom compost (30%) active carbon(10%), had the lowest yield, fruit number, fruiting duration, the longest duration between casing to first harvest flash as an unfavorable characteristic, although these treatments had the highest mean weight and cape diameter. Overall, the results showed that spent mushroom compost utilization as casing soil is not economically cost-effective.

To evaluate the efficiency of organic fertilizers on the agronomic characteristics, yield and yield components of maize cultivars SC (704) and (260 ) a experiment was carried out. Agricultural Research Center of Khorasan through the research field station in 2012. The effects of 9 fertilizer treatments included three types of organic fertilizers (16 and 32 tons per hectare), cows (24 and 48 tons per hectare), poultry (9.5 and 19 tons per hectare), fertilizers of 225 and 450 kg of urea Hectar and no fertilizer use (control) as main plots and two varieties of corn (Formerly Single Crossfader and Late 704) in sub plots were split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications were studied. The results of analysis of variance of the test data showed a significant difference between the treatments in ear diameter, ear length, ear height and length of Tassel at 5% level, and for the time interval between the emergence of pollen and silk fibers (ASI), (days from planting to pollination) (Tassal emergence) and total leaf area at 1% level. The results of mean comparison with Duncan's multiple range showed that the maximum forage yield (biomass and dry biomass) belonging to the compost treatment was 32 tons per hectare with average yield of 70.41 and 52.84 tons per hectare and the lowest forage yield (biomass and Dry biomass) belonged to control treatments 49.16 and 39.15 tons per hectare, respectively.

In this study the identification of chemical and biochemical characteristics of balangu seed oil (Lallemanthia royleana) and their parameters were investigated under accelerated aging conditions at 24 h, 48 h and 72 h at 41°C and 100% RH in a completely randomized design. The results showed that balangu seed oil content was 19.26%.Fatty acid profiles were 90.71% of unsaturated fatty acids (USFA) and 9.29% of saturated fatty acids (SFA), also the linolenic acid (C18:3), oleic acid (C18:1) and palmitic acid (C16:0) were important of PUSFA, MUSFA and SFA oil seeds, respectively.The antioxidants of oil seeds include 427.8 ppm tocopherols and 210 ml.l-1 of polyphenols. The results showed that 15.2% reduction in oil seed under accelerated aging treatment, also this treatments was the cause of increase of SFA compared to USFA. The oxidation and peroxide production peak was between control and 24 h of accelerated aging treatment. Oil resistance (rancimat) in the 72 h of aging treatment was 1.5 times less than to the control. The germination value (GV) was 1.6, 2.5 and 4.5 higher than the accelerated aging treatments, respectively. In general, it is likely that the changes of chemical and biochemical characteristics of seed oil is happened by oxidative enzymes and this condition is quicker in deteriorated balangu seeds

Since discovery of food, clothing and shelter, human wanted to improve their physical sufferings, and using experience separated toxic plants from non – toxic ones and medicinal herbs from non – medicine. Medicinal herbs are agricultural products which have a very important role in the health of people in society. Among the medicinal herbs, fennel with scientific name (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) traditionally was used for treating problems such as Inflammation and Cramping. Now, one of the main objectives of the modern agriculture is decreasing the consumption of fertilizers and greater the use of organic fertilizers especially livestock fertilizers. The use of organic fertilizers in nano-dimensions can absorb the nutrients needed to plant. Better use of nano- technology for producing organic fertilizers, suitable for recruiting plant can help plants in variable environmental conditions and be effective in the growth, quantity and quality performance (Sumner, 2000). By the considering the same management of organic and chemical fertilizers consumption especially nano–organic fertilizers, is of great importance and necessitate further research and consideration in all kinds of plants, medical and aromatic herbs and plants in particular.
A factorial experiment, arranged in a randomized complete blocks design with three replications, was conducted in the Saffron Research Institute at Torbat - Heydarieh University in 2014. The geographical location of the experimental station was 35º 20´ N and 59º 13´ E with the altitude of 1450 m. Factors, including utilization of nano-organic fertilizer in four levels (zero, 10, 20 and 30 tons per hectare) and nitrogen fertilizers application in four levels (0, 25 , 50 and 75 kg per hectare). Each experimental plot was 3 m long and 2 m wide and contained 4 rows with 50 cm distance. Seeds were directly sown by hand in late May. First irrigation was done 10 days after seedling emergence. The rest of irrigation was done every 5 days. The spacing between plants were 20 cm that was achieved by thinning plants in 3-4 leaves stage .Weeding was done manually tree times. Fennel harvesting was done in early September at the time of physiological maturity. At the first five plants harvested randomly from each plot for measurement of plant height, the number of lateral branches per plant, the number of umbels per plant, the number of seeds per umbel, the number of seeds per plant, weight of 1000 seed and fresh and dry weight of plant. Then for measurement of biomass, grain yield and harvest index, one m-2 of center of each plot was harvested. Seed and straw essence were measured using distillation method with distilled water by Clevenger apparatus. The data was analyzed using the SAS software. Means comparisons were done with Duncan’s multiple rang test at 5% probability.
Results showed that height, the number of lateral branches, the number of umbels per plants, the number of seeds per plant, 1000 seed weight, dry weight, seed yield, straw yield, biological yield, harvest index, and essence yield were affected by nano-organic manure. Nitrogen fertilizers had significant effect on height, the number of seeds per umbrella, the number of seeds per plant, plant fresh and dry weight, seed yield, straw yield, biological yield and essence yields while the number of lateral branches, umbels per plant, seed weight and harvest index was not affected by this factor. The interaction of nano- organic manure and nitrogen fertilizer had not significant effect on the measurement characteristics. While the application of 10 ton ha-1 of nano-organic manure or 25 kg ha-1 of nitrogen fertilizer could increase biological, seed, straw and essential oil yield, higher amount utilization values of each treatment had no effect .Consumption of 25 kg ha-1 of nitrogen fertilizer increased seed yield by increasing the biological yield, while 10 tons ha-1 nano-organic manure increased yield by increasing the number of umbrellas per plant, number of seeds per plant and seed weight.
In general it can be concluded that consumed 10 ton ha-1 of nano-organic manure can be an appropriate alternative for nitrogen fertilizers in fennel and probably has less adverse effects on environment.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is the most expensive spice and nutrient balance availability plays important role in the flower induction and its corms growth improvement. Besides consumption of organic fertilizers in reducing environmental contamination and soil biodiversity conservation, due to gradual release of nutrients play a positive role in improving the growth characteristics and yield of this plant. Considering the importance of soil fertility management effects on flower yield of this valuable plant, numerous studies have been done on fertilizer and nutritional issues. In this article we have tried to look at the fertilizer and nutrition researches of saffron in the past and present, a comprehensive study done on short-term and long-term effects of different levels of organic fertilizers and manure on yield and corms growth of saffron. What this study, we have tried to achieve the conclusion of appropriate fertilizer recommendations of new and conventional types of fertilizer sources based on researches carried out in order to enforce sustainable management of biological and economic resources in Iran. The fact that in saffron cultivation areas, particularly in Iran usually soil moisture storage content is relatively low and water stress occurs, via manure consumption can be increased soil moisture storage content and inputs consumption efficiency. Consequntly, through producing healthy and organic saffron Iran’s share in the global market will be increased.

Intoduction: Saffron (Corocus sativus L.) as the most expensive crop has special position among export products of Iran. Currently, Iran is the biggest saffron producer and exporter in the world. Much of saffron in Iran produced in South and Razavi provinces (6). One of the problems in saffron production of these regions is weed control. Weed competing with saffron for water, nutrients, light cause reduction of product (3, 7). Among control methods of weed, use of herbicides is not common in saffron fields. The main reason is the evidences about herbicides damage. For example, Zare Hosseini et al (14) observed application of herbicides of Iodosulfuron methyl sodium Mesosulfuron- methyl Mefenpyr-diethyl destroyed grasses and broadleaf, but it destroyed saffron plant too. Haloxyfop- R methyl ester damaged grasses, but decreased stigma yield. This study aimed to investigate the effect of pre-emergence herbicides on weed population changes; the performance characteristics of saffron and saffron corms were implemented.
An experiment was conducted in a 4-year saffron farm located in Shahn Abad village, Zaveh city in Khorasan Razavi province in 2011- 2012. It was in a completely randomized block design with eight treatments and three replications. The treatments included six pre-emergence herbicides including Metribuzin 70% WP (850 g.ha-1), Oxyfluorfen24% EC (1 l.ha-1), Ioxynil 22.5% EC (1.5 l.ha-1), Etalfluorelin 33.3%EC (3 l.ha-1), Trifluoralin 48%EC (2 l.ha-1) and Chloridazon 80 %WP (5 Kg.ha-1) Desmedipham 15.7% EC (5 l.ha-1) along with weed free and weedy check. Herbicides applied after irrigation simultaneously with crust breaking. The measurement characteristics included the number of flowers, fresh and dry weight of flower and stigma, leaf dry weight, leaf length, corm number and weight of saffron, weed type and wet and dry weight of dominant weeds. Herbicide treatments after irrigation were performed simultaneously with Crust breaking in 03/11/2011. The flowers gathering were conducted in 03/11/2011. Sampling of weed was performed in two stages in 04/18/2011 and 05/05/2012. In the first stage adding to the collection weed, leaves of saffron are also collected and the length of them were measured. In the second phase, when corm growth was stopped, they were gather, count, weight, and divide by weight. Corms into 4 groups: 0 to 3 g, 3 to 6 g, 6 to 9 grams and 9 grams were divided up. The traits were analyzed by using software programs Mstat-c. Mean comparison carried out with Duncan test with 5% probability.
Result and The results showed that between herbicide treatments the highest number of flower (16.76 per m-2) and dry weight of stigma (75.67 mg per m-2) was belonged to Metribuzin treatment. The least flowers number (10.76 per m-2) and dry weight of stigma (13.67 mg per m-2) were observed in Etalfluorelin treatment. However there weren’t significant difference between Etalfluorelin and Trifluoralin for these traits. In the first stage of weed sampling were only narrow leaf weeds. In the second stage sampling was 7 species, 3 species of narrow-leaf and broadleaf species was 4. Most of the narrow leaf weed species were ovate goatgrass (Aegilopsgeni culata Roth.). Most broadleaf species belong to maltese star thistle (Centaurea melitensis L.). In the first stage of sampling Metribuzin and Chloridazone Desmedipham herbicides had the highest effect in narrow leaf weed control, respectively. Ioxynil had the least impact on this stage. In the second stage of sampling, the highest and lowest control of maltese star thistlewas observed in Chloridazone Desmedipham and Ioxynil respectively. Chloridazone Desmedipham and Metribuzin had the greatest impact onovate goatgrass and other herbicides for control of these species were not significantly different. Minimal impact on the total corm weight was observed in Metribuzin and Etalfluorelin respectively. The most reduction of corm weight was observed in Chloridazone Desmedipham treatments. Amiri et al (4) reported that Metribuzin application before and after the weed eruption is appropriate for broadleaves and somewhat narrow-leaves control. None of the treatments had adverse effects on corm weight producing with 0-3, 6-9 and above 9 grams but 3-6 grams weight of corm was affected. In producing corms with 3 to 6 grams weight the least adverse effect was observed in Metribuzin. The most adverse effect after no weeding treatment in producing corms with 3 to 6 grams weight was belonged to Chloridazone Desmedipham.
. On the basis of results, it seems to be due to the least amount of damage to saffron and its corm and the most control of broadleaf and to some extent narrow- leaf weed, the application of 850 grams.ha-1 pre-emergence herbicide Metribuzin is suitable for saffron weed control.

The Xanthomonas genus is one of the most important groups of plant pathogenic bacteria that cause post-harvest spoilage. Substantial crop losses may result from the rapid spread of the bacteria under favorable conditions, lack of seed germination, seedling death and vascular obstruction of plant. The aim of this study was to investigate the combined effects of different concentrations of Cuminum cyminum essential oil (EO; including 0, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.8%), three levels of acidity (5, 6 and 7), two inoculums’ level (103 and 105 CFU/ml) and two incubation temperatures (26 and 28˚C) on the growth of X. campestris in the nutrient broth medium in a completely randomized design with three replications. Growth was monitored by visible turbidity during a 30-day period. The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of EO against X. campestris was 1 and 2% respectively. According to the results, P-cuminaldehyde was the main component, with a content of 30.5%. The statistical analysis of data showed that the maximum time to detection of bacteria (19 days) in the concentrations of 0.8% EO, pH of 5, the inoculum level of 103 CFU/ml and incubation temperature of 26˚C and the minimum time to detection (16 hours) in the inoculums level of 105 CFU/ml, pH of 7, 28 ˚C and no EO was observed. In addition to the concentration of Cuminum cyminum EO as an antimicrobial agent, acidity of medium is also considered the factors influencing the growth of X. campestris. By decreasing the pH, the time-to-detection of bacteria was increased. In conclusion, using a combination of different factors can inhibit the growth of bacteria, significantly.

In order to comparison the foliar application of biological, biostimulator and chemical fertilizers on growth characteristics and yield of saffron, a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized block design with four replication in 3- year field of saffron in Dargaz, Khorasan Razavi province from 2010 to 2011. The first factor had 5 levels included biostimulator fertilizer Bio-Amino-Palis, biostimulator fertilizer Aminol-Forte, biological fertilizer Nitroauxin, chemical fertilizer Dalfard-15, and control (without fertilizer treatment). The second factor had two levels included 1 and 2 times spraying with seven per thousands concentration of each fertilizers treatments. The results showed Aminol-Forte have better effect than other fertilizers on dry weight of corm, number of corm, number of corm equal/ higher or under 8 grams, fresh weight of flower, number of flowers, fresh and dry weight of stigma and style per square meter, leaf length as well as fresh and dry fresh weight of leaf. Bio-Amino-Palis and Aminol-Forte fertilizer treatments for number of flowers, fresh weight of stigma and style and dry weight of stigma, did not have significant difference. Two times foliar applications only reduced the number of corms weighing less than 8 g per unit area. Interaction of foliar applications levels and fertilizer types did not have significant effect on measured traits. On the basis of the results of this experiment, spraying of Aminol-Forte recommended in saffron fields once.

The environmental impact quotient (EIQ) developed by Kovach et al (1992) is used an effort to fill an important gap; i.e. the need to provide farmers and others with easy-to-use information about the adverse effects of pesticides. It represents a method for calculating the environmental impacts of pesticides, and the values obtained from these calculations can be used to compare different pesticides and pest management programs with each other to ultimately determine which program or pesticide is likely to have the lowest environmental impact. The EIQ value for a particular active ingredient is calculated according to a formula that includes parameters for toxicity (dermal, chronic, bird, bee, fish, and beneficial arthropod), soil half-life, systemicity, leaching potential, and plant surface half-life. Each of these parameters is given a rating of 1, 3 or 5 to reflect its potential of causing harm. Six of these ratings are based on measured or known properties and the other five are based on judgments according to their potentially low, moderate or severe impact. Since the EIQ value is mainly a hazard indicator, additional calculations are required to obtain an indication of the pesticide risk. To account for exposure, an equation called the Field Use EIQ has been developed. This rating is calculated by multiplying the EIQ value for a specific chemical from the tables by the percent active ingredient in the formulation and its dosage rate used per hectare (usually in liters or kilograms of the formulated product). EIQ is used in different studies to compare the environmental effects of different pesticides and/or different production systems (Avila et al., 2011; Doris et al., 2011; Gallivan et al., 2001; Macharia et al., 2009). The aim of this study was to evaluate management strategies in using pesticides in wheat and barley farms in the city of Mashhad located in the Khorasan Razavi province in Iran.

Data related to pesticides (insecticides, herbicides and fungicides) used in wheat and barley in the city of Mashhad located in the Khorasan Razavi province were gathered through face to face filling questionnaires by the users. The indices measured in this study include Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) and its components (farm worker, consumer, leaching and ecology) and Field Use Rate - EIQ (FUR-EIQ). EIQ is calculated based on the work of Kovach et al. (1992). The formula is: EIQ={C[(DT×5)+(DT×P)]+[(C×((S+P)/2)×SY)+(L)]+[(F×R)+(D×((S+P)/2)×3)+(Z×P×3)+(B×P×5)]}/3 In this formula: DT: Dermal Toxicity; C: long term health effects; SY: mode of action; F: fish toxicity; L: leaching potential; R: surface runoff potential; D: bird toxicity; S: soil residue half-life; Z: bee toxicity; B: beneficial arthropod toxicity; P: plant surface half-life. EIQ field use rating was calculated by multiplying the EIQ value for a specific chemical from the table by the percent active ingredient in the formulation and the rate of its dosage used per hectare: EIQ Field Use Rating = EIQ × % active ingredient × Rate

A large degree of variation was observed in the amount of EIQ and its components. The results showed that in wheat cultivation, Carbendazim had the most effect on the farm worker component and Diazinon had the least effect on this component. The most risk of the consumer and leaching component in wheat fields were shown in fungicides. The fungicide Carbendazim had the most effect on the consumer and leaching component. The least effect on consumer and leaching component were obtained in Deltamethrin. Replacement of Carbendazim with Iprodione, Thiram and Carboxin which are used for disinfection of seeds will improve the consumer and leaching component. In terms of ecology, the Diazinon component had the most dangerous environmental risk in wheat fields. In this section, pesticides were more importance than fungicides. The use of Deltamethrin to control Eurygaster integriceps in wheat, is not recommended and it should be replaced by Trichlorfon because of the risk of ecological destruction. Such ecological destruction is not much different among the various fungicides. The maximum and minimum amount of EIQ among the pesticides used in wheat farms in Mashhad were obtained in Diazinon and Deltamethrin, respectively. 2, 4- D and Fenoxaprop ethyl had the lowest and highest EIQ indices among the herbicides used in wheat farms. The lowest FUR-EIQ index in wheat fields was observed for the application of herbicides. The maximum value of this index was shown in the usage of fungicides. The highest value of the EIQ-FUR related to the Carbendazim fungicide. Due to low consumption of Detamethrin, it had the small value of this index. Considering EIQ-FUR, the use of Deltamethrin is considered to be more appropriate than Trichlorfon. Use of Iprdion for the disinfection of seeds, and Tribenuron-methyl for the elimination of weeds in wheat fields are the best choices since they had the lowest FUR-EIQ index. In barley cultivation, Carbendazim and Diazinon had the most and the least effects on farm worker component, respectively. In the consumer and leaching component, the most and the least effects were to the observed in Carbendazim as a fungicide and in the Deltamethrin as an insecticide, respectively. In terms of ecology, the Diazinon and Tribenuron-methyl components had the most and the least effect respectively. In this respect, the fungicides used for seed treatment did not show much difference. The maximum EIQ among the pesticides used in barley fields in Mashhad was observed in Carbendazim. Iprdion used for the disinfection of seeds had the lowest EIQ. Considering the herbicides 2, 4- D and Fenoxaprop ethyl had the lowest and highest values of EIQ, respectively. The evaluation of FUR-EIQ in barley fields in Mashhad showed that cyproconazole was the best fungicide used for seed disinfection and it is a good alternative for Carbendazim. Carbendazim was assessed as the most dangerous environmental pesticide. Considering the pesticides dosage and FUR-EIQ, Deltamethrin was found to be a suitable insecticide against Eurygaster integriceps and Tribenuron-methyl was found to be a less dangerous herbicide. The results showed that in wheat and barley farms in Mashhad, the biggest danger in farm worker consumer and leaching components was Carbendazim fungicide. Diazinon pesticide had the lowest risk in the farm laborer component. The lowest risk in consumer and leaching component related to the Deltamethrin pesticide. In terms of the ecology components, the most environmental degradation was created by the Diazinon pesticide. Carbendazim is the most dangerous pesticide. Based on the measurements of FUR-EIQ, the fungicides had the highest risk and the herbicides had the lowest risk.

To study the effect of application methods of Fulzym biofertilizer (containing Bacillus subtilis) on yield¡ yield components and some morpho-physiological characteristics of four cultivars wheat¡ an experiment was conducted in field of Astan Quds Razavi in 2010- 2011. The experiment performed was in split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications. Four wheat cultivars (Falat¡ Pishtaz¡ Bahar and Toos) were assigned to main plots and four biofertilizer application methods (as seed inoculation¡ using in irrigation water¡ seed inoculation and irrigation and control) to sub plots. Results indicated that Falat had the lowest plant height (61.5 cm) than other varieties. Plant height of Toos and Pishtaz were about 14.5 percent higher than Falat. Application methods of Fulzym increased chlorophyll content and plant height. Highest chlorophyll contents were obtained when seeds inoculated by Fulzyme and used through irrigation. At the end of growing season¡ it was found that chlorophyll content of Falat and Toos flag leaves were higher than Pishtaz and Bahar. It was also revealed that Bahar when Fulzyme was used showed a better response to treatments than other varieties as for as biological and seed yields were concerned. Highest seed yield produced by irrigation and combination of seed inoculation and irrigation (9063 and 8609 kg.ha-1) and lowest seed yield (5858 kg.ha-1) to Falat in the control treatment.

Application of microelements is one of the ways to increase quantative and qualitative characters of wheat. To evaluate the effect of zinc foliar application on yield and yield components of four wheat cultivars a factorial experiment with two factors was conducted in randomized complete blocks design with three replications in 2011-2012 year. The first factor consisted of four wheat cultivars (Falat, Bahar, Pishtaz and Tous) and the second factor composed of three levels of zinc chelate foliar applications (control, at shooting stage and at shooting flowering stages). Zinc concentration in each application was decided to be 4 kilogram per hectare. Results showed that yield and yield components of cultivars were significantly different with each others. The highest and lowest yields were belonged to Bahar and Tous respectively. The highest yield of Bahar, as compared to the other cultivars, was due to its higher biological yield. Zinc foliar applications at shooting and shooting flowering stages also increased biological and seed yields. Seed yield increase mainly affected by higher 1000 seed weight. In general, it seems that zinc application, due to its role in the physiology of wheat, a sensitive plant to zinc deficiency, may increase its seed yield.