سعید طاوسی مسرور

Understanding is about the subject and action, and social understanding is a sociological look at the object of observation that occurs in order to receive social inference. Throughout history, this understanding has shaped custom due to its alignment with social norms. Religious custom originates from religious norms and religious texts and creates a different way of life. In this regard, books have been written at different times, whose purpose is to respond to social needs in maintaining and expanding social norms. The purpose of examining two books (Heliyat al-Mutaqeen and Mafatih al-Hayaht) is the impact of environmental roles on the authors and the study of the social understanding of the Shiite religious custom. The trend of Shia religious customs can generally be divided into two main parts: social (Islamic civilization) and individual (monotheistic man). The research method is a comparative method that increases awareness, avoids misinformation, and teaches lessons.

In this article, we will compare the Prophet Saleh and his camel with Ali Ibn Abi Talib (as) in the light of Shiite sources, including the stories of the prophets, hadiths, jurisprudence, and interpretations of the Qurʾān. In the narrative of the Shias, the longtime interval and the sequence of historical events between the two have been overlooked.  Because of the narrators' desire to improve Ali's former condition and embellish his character with piety, he is depicted as a person with many righteous qualities of the Prophet Saleh. Therefore, Ali is depicted in such a way that he shares many of the good qualities of the Prophet Saleh and is from a holy lineage just like him. Shia writers used the connection between the two personalities to convince the doubters of the rightness of Imamate of Ali and to show that his rank was not less than that of a prophet and to prove the antiquity of Shia belief.

Hilla Theological School is one of the Shiite scientific centers that many scholars were proud of during the sixth to eighth centuries. Sayyed Ibn Tavous (d. 665) and Ibn Fahad Helli (d. 841) are two theological scholars in the school of Hilla. Their lives were different in two periods of time so that Sayyed Ibn Tavous lived at the end of the Abbasid caliphate and the beginning of the rule of the Mongol ilkhans who were called Jair(Oppressor) in Shiite political thought; But Ibn Fahad Helli was born about two centuries later at a time when these Oppressive governments had disintegrated the governments of the tribal monarchies had risen and the number of Shiites had increased more than before; This difference caused when these two Shia thinkers, while both of them were followers of the jurisprudential-theological current in the school of Hilla, had different political thoughts and their policies were different in dealing with the oppressive ruler. In the present study, which has been done by descriptive-analytical method, by using library resources and criticizing the reports in them, we have made a comparative study of the political thought of Sayyed Ibn Tavous and Ibn Fahad Helli.

 The intellectual debates from elite schools to the political arena are always considered an essential part of a society's thought schools. Some of such reflections can be understood from the resources of each period. Refutation is a type of writing whose primary purpose is to prove the invalidity of a particular belief or claim. The present study aims to examine the refutations introduced in the Kitab al-Fihrist of Nadim; some of which have generally disappeared. However, the analysis of their names and types can help to analyze the thought schools of the early Islamic society until 377 AH. Based on the typological technique, this research has studied three types of theologicalrefutations: 1) group-based (religions, eclectic ideas, and cults), 2) individual-based (individuals or their works), and 3) thematic-based. The results show that the Mu'tazilites were the pioneers of the refutations written on others and even among themselves, followed by the Imamis with a long distance. Most Refutations have been devoted to Christians. The determinists in the refutations in sects and religions have been criticized and rejected indicating the intellectual conflict of the Islamic society with determinism. The individual-based refutations written on the person or their works focused on the Mu'tazilites and their theological disputes. Bishr Ibn Moʻtamar and Abu Ali Jobba'i are known as the most famous apostasiographers. In the thematic-based type of refutation, the subjects of 'Imamate, Prophethood, Resurrection, and the Qur'an have received more attention. The origin of refutations came from Baghdad.

In Islam, like other religions, sectarianism has been influenced by various factors reflected in books and treatises. In each era, analyzing the titles of books can help to better understand discourses and intellectual geography. The early Islamic centuries are no exception, especially since it is a period of particular importance for understanding thought schools. These currents are known as the source of change and influence.The writing of books is accelerated from the second century AH, and varied types were produced. The refutation text is one of the types of books. A significant part of Islamic works is documented in criticism and rejection of each other. Although there are not many works left from the earliest sources, examining the books' names and their authors can show the concerns of Islamic thinkers and the intellectual conflicts in the Islamic society. These are the most critical factors eroding the power of the Islamic world.

Considering the importance and precedence of Al-Fihrist, written in 377AH, we examined the refutations based on the typological technique according to their numbers, authors and religion, subject, author's geographical location, and other types of information. The focus of the research is on Theological Refutations.In this research, 369 refutations were extracted from Al-Fihrist.  The necessary information was gathered based on other sources of Biography, Classes, History, Geography, etc. due to incomplete details in the fields.

 Traditional refutations emerged in the early Islamic society by theologians to disprove rival beliefs or claims. The review of 369 refutation titles in Al-Fihrist showed that Baghdad was their primary origin, and their main topic was theological discourse (287 Refutations). The Mu'tazilites were pre-eminent in the theological refutations followed by, with a great distance, the Imamis. The theological refutations of Nadim's Al-Fihrist were examined under three main categories. The refutation is written chiefly about the Christians regarding the eclectic religion.  Determination has been criticized and rejected the most among the sects, showing the importance of determinism debates in the Islamic society.In individual-based writing (individuals or their works) on a particular person or book of refutation, Mu'tazilite theologians were the most suspect of refutation. Yet, many intra-religious refutations have risen from their extreme rationalism. Rationalism based on Islamic heritage was influenced by ideas such as Greek philosophers and Iranian and Indian ontologists as well.Most of the refutations were Mu'tazilites, and most denied in refutations were Mu'tazilites indicating that the Mu'tazilites were claimants of theology. By presenting more or less systematic ideas based on rationalist conceptions, they formulated their theological views and rejected the opinions of others accordingly. This approach was inclusive and was not limited to Islamic sects and religions, as most refutations were Mu'tazilites. Among the refutations of the Imamis against the Mu'tazilites, most works were related to the Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid who encountered them by their methods. He noticed more of the issue of Imamate as the most critical point of difference between Shiites and Mu'tazilites. Imamate, prophecy, resurrection, and the Qur'an have received more attention in thematic-based refutations.

Hussain ibn Musa ibn Jafar is a famous Alawi person who transmitted some Hadiths from his father Imam Musa al Kazim and his brother, Imam Ali ibn Musa al Rida (A.S). This lofty position and proximity to the Imamate line, caused the construction of some attributed Sepulchers to him in many cities, of which Tabas, located in the east of Iran, has more fame. Ali Akhavan Mahdavi has written a book on this important personality, his life, and his real place of burring. The present study aims to examine the book critically, therefore, tries to introduce and examine the book, then discusses some problems in it and presents suggestions regarding both the form and the content. So, we prepare our study with the use of a descriptive-analytical approach and of course a special usage of the main historical sources to which compare the contents of them. In conclusion, the author reached some important innovations in comparison with similar sources and studies, and it is completely clear by analyzing the content of hadith and genealogy books. Examination of the Akhavan Mahdavi's book showed that although this book has many advantages and has been effective on subsequent works written on this subject, but shortcomings such as lack of research background and critique of sources, the author's little use of Hadith and Rijal sources are among the cons. Some of the author's citations have diminished the book's credibility.

Ibāḍiyya is a religion, attributed to Abdullah ibn Ibad Tamimi, whose historical centers were Oman and parts of the Islamic Maghreb. In this religion, the Hajj is one of the objective obligations of Sharia and one of the pillars of Islam. Hence, the Ibāḍiyyats of the Maghreb also paid attention to it. In this article, to prove this claim, documentary evidence about the life of Imam Abdul Wahab bin Abdul Rahman Rostami (d. 211), the political-religious leader of the Ibāḍiyyats of the Maghreb, is presented. The evidence shows that he intended to perform the Hajj in the 8th and the last decade of the 3rd centuries AH. Although it is suggested that he may have had a political motive for re-emphasizing the Hajj, his request of a fatwa from Rabi ibn Habib, the Ibāḍiyyats’ Imam in Oman, and his reference to the Ibāḍiyya elders of the Maghreb show that the Hajj was a very important issue among the Maghreb’s Ibadiyyats, whose abandonment could only be justified in an emergency case.

Apostasiography is a literature whose main focus would be to prove the invalidity of a belief or a specific claim. This type of literature can be seen among Islamic works of the second century onward. Although the majority of this literature has been destroyed, the study of mere titles can open new windows for the researchers to read and discover the history, type of conflicts among the Shiite speakers and different ideologies in the Islamic society of that time. To this day, some of these ideologies have been the basis of faiths in different sects in Islam; therefore scrutinizing them from all aspects is of great importance. ‬The present study relies on written references and focuses on theological apostasiography of Shia cults using the early scholar list of works namely Rijal of Najashi, Tousi and Kitāb al-Fihrist of Nadim. Quantification of the information in Apostasies, extrareligious, extrasectious and intersectious typology and their frequencies are used as research methods through which the arrangements of the Islamic society are analyzed. The results show that the majority of apostasiographers are Imami among which Shaikh Mofid is the most prolific. Extrareligious Apostasiography has not been popular among Shiite authors and scholars. In extrareligious apostasies, above all, the Mu'tazilites have been subject to criticism and rebuttal while in interreligious apostasies, The exaggerants. The number of apostasies produced in the third century exceeds that of the other centuries.

Wilfred Madelung is one of the most prominent contemporary Shiite orientalists whose works have many scientific and methodological advantages in comparison with other Western Shiite scholars. The first article in "Hussein Ibn Ali" entry in the Iranica Encyclopedia about the life and importance of Imam Hussein in the Shiites was written by him. In this research, Madelung's article has been reviewed and critiqued using descriptive-analytical method. The result is a review of the critique of his report, especially in relation to the use of sources in the narration of events surrounding the peace and burial of Imam Hassan Mojtaba and some of the positions of Imam Hussein. In his article, Madelung did not rely solely on source-based citations, and in many cases provided his own insights and analysis as well.

Abstract</strong> The book of Rabi 'ibn Habib is the most important book of hadith of the Ibadiyya religion, which contains some different chapters of jurisprudence, belief and interpretation. The purpose of this article is to identify and study the position of Rabi 'ibn Habib, which has been processed on it very little attention. The possibility of being forgery is one of the most important issues regarding this book, which has been raised by some of the Sunni contemporaries, such as Muhammad Nasser al-Din al-Albani and Egyptian knowledgeable Khalid ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Zaki. Our method in this article, in addition to reviewing the documents and the content of the book, is to review the previous and later sources and also new research in different languages that has been done about this document, in addition, the author is introduced and his scientific life is examined. He findings show that the Musnad</em> of Rabi 'ibn Habib is the most important text of the Ibadiyya hadith and it is difficult to prove its falsity and baselessness. This book was most likely compiled by a student of one of Rabi's students and was not compiled by him.

 The achievement of Muslim physicians in medical ethics has been a result of special attention to ethical issues in their profession. This attitude has been fruitful in the light of Islamic teachings and has found a special place in Islamic medical history. Their valuable legacy today can be instrumental in organizing a new Muslim approach to medical ethics.

 The present study has attempted to investigate the status of medical ethics in Qajar era and the ethical practitioners of the time by using a descriptive-analytical approach. It also studies the book of Vasaya-ie Hakim by Mirza Jafar Tabib, a prominent scientist and at the same time the lesser known person from Qajar period, summarizing its instructions and ethical guidelines for how the physician relates to the patient and his family. It finally infers the principles of his medical principles ethics by surveying and analyzing the findings of the research.

In references to the texts, honesty and trustworthiness, citation of the texts used avoidance of bias in inferring the texts or analyzes have been observed.

 The present study shows that paying attention to medical ethics has an important place among Muslims physicians in Qajar era. It is also the basis of the ethical recommendations and guidelines in Vasaya-ie Hakim regarding to the interaction of the physician with the patient and his Family in a framework of six ethical principles consists of trust, trust in God, benefit to the Patient, non-injury, compassion and kindness and justice.

 Hakim Mohammad Hossein Aghili Khorasani, Hakim Mirza Mohammad Taghi Shirazi, Mirza Seyed Ahmad Sharif Tonekaboni, Mirza Ali Hamdani, Ayatollah Seyed Hossein Hakim and Dr.Saeed Khan Kordestani are among the top examples of ethical practitioners in the period. Mirza Jafar Tabib is also one of the Muslims and faithful practitioners who have devoted himself to discussing medical ethics in the time of the decline of Islamic civilization. His ethical advice and tips besides how to deal with the patient are related to the physician's relationship with the patient's family.