سیده معصومه زمانی

The oak moth, Porthesia melania Stgr. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), is a destructive pest of oak trees in Iran. The first and second instar larvae feed on the upper surface of leaves, while most damage is caused by the fourth and fifth instar larvae, which consume entire leaves. Chemical control methods have several disadvantages, including environmental harm. Biological control using entomopathogens offers an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical pesticides. Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff) Sorokin are two of the most important fungi used in pest control. This study investigates the efficacy of indigenous isolates of B. bassiana and M. anisopliae against P. melania.

In May 2022, leaves of Iranian oak (Quercus brantii Lindl.) infected with P. melania eggs were collected from an oak forest in Markazi Province, Iran, and transferred to plastic containers (17×25×6 cm³) with net-covered lids for aeration. They were kept in an incubator at 25±2°C and 60±5% relative humidity with a 16 h L:8 h D photoperiod. Before conducting bioassay tests, conidial viability was determined. The susceptibility of second instar P. melania larvae to three isolates of entomopathogenic fungi, B. bassiana (BG and B2) and M. anisopliae (M1), was assessed using five concentrations (10⁴, 10⁵, 10⁶, 10⁷, and 10⁸ conidia/mL) and a control treatment via immersion and spraying methods under laboratory conditions. Three replicates were used for each treatment, and the entire experiment was repeated four times. Statistical analysis was performed using Analysis of Variance (SAS Institute, Version 9.4). LC₅₀, LC₉₀, LT₅₀, and LT₉₀ values were compared using the LDR (Likelihood Difference Ratio) method.

The mean viability of conidia for all B. bassiana and M. anisopliae isolates ranged from 95% to 99%. Mortality in the control group was very low, with no fungal growth observed. The three strains (BG and B2 of B. bassiana and M1 of M. anisopliae) differed significantly in virulence but caused high mortality (over 78%) at the highest dose in both bioassay methods. Applying 10⁸ conidia/mL of BG resulted in the highest mortality (100%), while M1 caused the lowest (78%). Notably, BG's mortality was significantly higher than that of other isolates in both methods. The mean lethal concentration values (LC₅₀) for BG, B2, and M1 were 6.74×10³, 7.37×10³, and 2.62×10⁴ conidia/mL (immersion method) and 1.33×10⁴, 3.45×10⁴, and 5.59×10⁶ conidia/mL (spraying method) 96 hours post-treatment, respectively. The calculated LT₅₀ values using 10⁸ conidia/mL for each isolate (BG, B2, and M1) on second instar larvae were 24.94, 32.12, and 36.54 hours (immersion method) and 30.73, 31.67, and 45.57 hours (spraying method), respectively.

This research demonstrates that indigenous isolates of B. bassiana, particularly BG, are effective in controlling the oak moth (P. melania). BG exhibited significant virulence, causing 100% mortality at the highest concentration in both immersion and spraying methods. The larval immersion method was the most effective treatment. The environmentally friendly nature of entomopathogenic fungi makes them a promising alternative to chemical pesticides for managing P. melania populations. Fungal activities play a crucial role in stabilizing insect population dynamics in natural ecosystems. This study provides valuable insights into sustainable pest control strategies, highlighting the potential of the BG isolate from B. bassiana in biological control programs against oak moth infestations.

Wastewater treatment plants generate substantial amounts of sewage sludge, necessitating proper management and disposal strategies. Given its potential to improve soil physico-chemical properties, sewage sludge can be repurposed as an organic fertilizer in poplar plantations, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices. However, due to its high nutrient content, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, concerns arise regarding its potential impact on tree health, including increased susceptibility to pests and diseases. Excess nutrients may alter plant metabolism, making trees either more attractive to herbivorous pests or more resilient to infestations. To evaluate this hypothesis, a field study was conducted to assess the effects of fertilization with sewage sludge from the South Wastewater Treatment Plant of Tehran on pest and disease incidence in two poplar species (Populus nigra 62/154 and Populus alba 45/67).

This study, as part of a broader project on the potential application of sewage sludge in poplar plantations, was conducted using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with two factors: (1) sewage sludge at three levels (0, 10, and 20 kg/m²) and (2) species at two levels (P. nigra 62/154 and P. alba 45/67). The experiment included three blocks, each containing six plots (each 16 m²), representing a combination of sewage sludge treatment and poplar species. In total, the experiment comprised six treatments (3 sewage sludge levels × 2 species) with three replications. Each plot contained nine trees. Over four consecutive growing seasons, all poplar trees were systematically monitored for pest and disease occurrence, and data were recorded in pre-prepared forms.

During the first growing season, no significant pest infestations were observed in either poplar species, and trees subjected to different sewage sludge treatments showed no differences in this regard. In the second growing season, Monosteira unicostata was identified as the primary pest, causing partial leaf fall in the middle of the growing season. The infestation rate in P. alba was nearly twice as high as in P. nigra, though no significant differences were observed among sewage sludge treatments. In the third growing season, Phloeomyzus passerinii and Chaitophorus populeti were the most prevalent pests on P. nigra, whereas Phloeomyzus passerinii and Monosteira unicostata were the dominant pests on P. alba. In the fourth growing season, water stress led to the presence of Melanophila picta on some P. nigra trees and Phloeomyzus passerinii on some P. alba trees. Across all four growing seasons, no significant differences were detected among sewage sludge treatments in terms of pest incidence.

The results of this study indicate that sewage sludge fertilization did not significantly influence the susceptibility of either poplar species to pests and diseases. This finding is crucial for sustainable forestry management, as it suggests that The four-year monitoring period revealed that P. alba exhibited greater resistance to economically significant pests compared to P. nigra. Future studies could further investigate the long-term effects of sewage sludge on soil microbial communities and tree physiological responses to better understand its broader ecological impacts

Euphrates poplar (Populus euphratica) is a fast-growing species in the family Salicaceae, naturally occurring in many regions of Iran and valued for wood production. Egeirotrioza ceardi (Hemiptera: Triozidae) is a major pest of P. euphratica in both natural and cultivated habitats, including Tehran province. This pest induces dense gall formations on leaves, disrupting photosynthesis, causing yellowing, and leading to premature leaf drop. This study investigated the biology and natural control factors of E. ceardi on Euphrates poplar trees in the National Botanical Garden of Iran during 2018 and 2019, with the aim of understanding its life cycle and evaluating the role of effective factors in controlling the pest population.

Field and laboratory investigations were conducted to monitor pest population dynamics, nymphal damage, and natural enemies on 10–12 trees at intervals of 7–15 days.Adult sampling involved shaking 20 branches (50 cm in length) from four cardinal directions of each tree into Schneider traps, along with the random collection of 20 additional branches (30 cm in length). In the laboratory, 80 leaves and 20 twig tips per tree were randomly selected and examined under a binocular microscope to record eggs, nymphs, galls, and parasitized nymphs. Specimens were either reared or preserved in 75%–80% ethanol. Additionally, to study the pest’s developmental stages under controlled conditions, 100 pairs of adults were released onto enclosed seedling twigs in the field.

In the National Botanical Garden of Iran, E. ceardi adults appeared on P. euphratica trees from early March to late April, with slight variations between years due to weather conditions. Adults began feeding on newly emerged leaf buds from mid or late March, and females laid eggs on twigs, lateral buds, and both sides of young leaves. The average number o eggs per female was 75.03 ± 13.47 in 2018 and 63.71 ± 12.04 in 2019, with oviposition periods of 10.30 ± 1.98 days and 7.24 ± 1.58 days, respectively. Eggs hatched from late March or early April, with incubation periods of 10.38 ± 3.42 days in 2018 and 13.87 ± 4.23 days in 2019. The insect undergoes five nymphal instars. Nymphs, which feed on leaf sap, develop within galls on both leaf surfaces from late March or early April to mid November. Egeirotrioza ceardi overwinters as fifth-instar nymphs inside galls on dried leaves and completes one generation per year. The sexratio (male: female) was 1:1.44 in 2018 and 1:1.92 in 2019. More than ten predatory arthropod species were observed feeding on various life stages of E. ceardi. Additionally, birds andIranian Journal of Forest and Range Protection Research Vol. 22 No. (2), 2025 334 parasitoid wasps, particularly Psyllophagus spp. (Encyrtidae), were identified as natural enemies of the nymphs.

While climatic factors, particularly cold temperatures and heavy rainfall from late February to mid-April, played a major role in regulating E. ceardi populations, natural enemies had a limited impact on its control. In Tehran province, chemical control targeting adults, eggs, and first-instar nymphs before gall formation (mid March to late April) is recommended. Mechanical control, involving the collection and destruction of dried leaves from late autumn to late February, is also suggested as an effective management strategy.

Wood has some limitations in properties and applications due to its natural nature, which need to be modified. Wood modification is usually done with different aims and methods. One of the wood modification methods is thermal treatments in order to improvement of dimensional stability and biological resistance. But, it is surely affected on physical and mechanical properties of wood. Wood thermal modification in presence of oxygen causes the oxidation of its chemical structure which leads to decrement of physical and mechanical properties. Therefore, elimination of oxygen in thermal modification can reduce its destructive effects. In current study, the effect of thermo-oil process on the function of white rot fungus has been investigated. Moreover, the effect of this process on engineering properties of birch and pine wood species was evaluated.

In this study, two wood species of birch (Betula sp.) and pine (Pinus sp.) cut into the desired timbers. Heat treatment of the prepared timbers was carried out in a cylinder which equipped to the pressure and vacuum system. Also, industrial recycled oil was used for heat treatment of the timbers. The temperature and time treatment were considered 195 °C and 5 hours, respectively. At the end of the process, the used oil was drained into the oil storage tank and the timbers were removed from the cylinder after applying vacuum. In order to investigation of biological resistance as well as physical and mechanical properties (water absorption and swelling, density, mass loss, bending strength, compression strength parallel to the grain and impact strength) test specimens were prepared from the treated and control timbers based on the standard. The SPSS software was used for statistical analysis. The results were statistically analyzed based on a One-Way ANOVA method.

Results revealed that thermo-oil treatment can reduce the functionality of white rot fungus and also its efficiency on physical and mechanical properties of both wood species. Moreover, the results showed that this process improved the physical properties and reduced the mechanical properties, except compression strength parallel to the grain.

Thermo-oil treatment at high temperature causes structural changes of wood and affects its physical and mechanical properties. Also, the structural changes caused by heat treatment can be an effective and inhibiting factor to functionality of white rot fungus on physical and mechanical properties of wood.

The National Botanical Garden of Iran (NBGI) is the country's largest and most complete genetic collection. Its role in preserving Iran's essential and endemic species and as a source for their propagation is irreplaceable. The National Botanical Garden of Iran, with its rich plant diversity (more than 4000 plant species), undoubtedly includes a wide range of valuable fungi. These include fungi, plant symbionts, and many other fungi that are nature's most effective recyclers and decomposers. During autumn 2023, Specimens of Sandy Stilt-Puffball (Battarrea phalloides), a rare and protected species worldwide, were collected from the NBGI. This saprobic fungi has no specific smell and taste and grows singly or in groups on sandy soils. In the collected samples, the morphological features of the fungus included a conical to semi-conical cap with a diameter of four centimeters, a hairy, hard, and brown stem with a height of 25 cm, and a vulva consisting of a capitolium and gleba and an elater at the base. Elaters had yellow spiral structures and basidia with two - four spores and no cystidia. Based on the above characteristics, the sample taken was identified as Battarrea phalloides (Agaraicaceae, Basidiomycota). Despite its worldwide distribution, the species B. phalloides is one of the rare and endangered fungal species. Observing this rare mushroom in the NBGI highlights the need to pay attention to this biological treasure and protect it from urban development.

Oaks (Quercus) are among the most important trees found in forests Iran and rest of the world. Over the last decade, oak charcoal disease (OCD) has become more common in numerous forest areas in the Zagros and Hyrcanian regions, largely due to reduced rainfall and multiple droughts. This disease causes local or systemic necrosis, wilting, and even death of infected oak trees within one or more years. In addition, there is a complex interaction between trees and biotic and abiotic environmental factors. This study was conducted in 2020-2021 on oak trees in seven provinces of the country, namely Khuzestan, Ilam, Lorestan, Kurdistan, Khuzestan, Isfahan and Golestan, to analyze and determine the current status of oak trees in terms of OCD and the causative fungal pathogens. For this purpose, samples of infected oak trees were collected and then the causal agents of the disease isolated and identified morphologically. Detection of the samples was confirmed by sequencing the fungal ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and ß-tubulin gene. The results showed that the most prevalent fungal pathogens of OCD in the samples were Biscogniauxia mediterranea and Obolarina persica. The prevalence of these fungi in the studied provinces varied, with the highest prevalence of B. mediterranea in Lorestan and the highest prevalence of O. persica in Ilam. The results of this study complemented the existing relatively limited data on the prevalence of each fungal pathogen of OCD in different provinces. In addition, the current status of oak infection in each of the studied regions was clarified.

Carpinus orientalis Mill is a native tree growing in the forests of northern Iran. This tree-shrub plant is shorter and more branched compared to hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) and thrives in sunny and rocky areas. The Cytospora genus is known as a primary agent of canker, causing damage to trees affected by stress factors such as water stress, frost stress, sunburn, or mechanical damage (caused by non-living and living agents such as insects). Disease occurrence by different species of Cytospora spp. has been reported in a wide range of hosts, including species from the genera Populus, Salix, Acer, Ulmus, Alnus, Fraxinus, Prunus, Sorbus, Cydonia, Amelanchier, and many others.

To identify the causes of Oriental hornbeam decline in Mazandaran province, samples from infected tissue were collected and transferred to the laboratory for fungal isolation. The most prominent symptoms of the disease were shoot dieback and dead or dying branches visible from a distance. In humid weather, cankers exuded clear amber resin, which eventually formed a clear white crust on the branches. In young seedlings, dried leaves remained on the branches, and the seedlings were completely desiccated, indicating the high severity of the disease. Fungal isolates were obtained by removing a mucoid spore mass from conidiomata (from the canker areas) and by disinfecting and culturing infected tissue on Potato-Dextrose-Agar (PDA) medium, incubated at 23±2°C in darkness. After purification of the fungal isolate by single spore, various morphological characteristics including spore shape and size, colony diameter, growth rate, and pigment production were evaluated on PDA medium.

 The fungus grew rapidly on PDA and produced cream-white to hyaline, moderate to profusely cottony aerial hyphae. Conidia were hyaline, unicellular, with thin walls and no septa. A transverse section of the infected tissues showed long conidiophores inside the fungal stromata. Based on morphological characteristics, the fungus was identified as Cytospora sp. The morphological results indicated a similarity between this isolate and C. decipiens species. This is the first report of ‘Carpinus orientalis decline’ caused by Cytospora species in Iran.

 Investigating the epidemiology and management of cytosporic canker disease is of particular importance because its development is expected to intensify under future drought and climate stress conditions. Currently, due to increasing reports of decline caused by Cytospora, especially in Hornbeam species, the lack of information about the host range and epidemiology of the fungus, and the possible role of climate change in disease development, it is clear that this disease warrants further study.

Cupressus sempervirens L. var. horizontalis is one of the indigenous species of Iran, the natural habitats of which are regarded as significant forest reserves within Iran. In the northern of Iran, cypress trees have commonly been observed in both natural and artificially planted forests. The purpose of this study was to investigate the fungal factors affecting the common cypress tree die back in Hassanabad (Mazandaran province) during the summer of 2023. Study of the affected trees indicated drying in the terminal branches of the trees, blight and necrosis of the upper branches, as well as canker formation on the trunks of common cypress trees. The infected tissues of common cypress trees were cultured on potato dextrose agar medium. Fungal isolates were obtained. Based on the macroscopic and microscopic characters of the isolates they were identified as Diplodia cupressi in the laboratory. To confirm the morphological identification the rDNA sequence data (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) were obtained using primers ITS1 and ITS4, and nBLAST. The pathogenicity of the fungus was approved on potted cypress seedlings. This study represents the major role of D. cupressi as the causal agent of Common cypress canker in North of Iran. It seems that the climate change and drought conditions provided the favorable environment to outbreak of the disease

The Caspian boxwood (Buxus sempervirens subsp. hyrcana) trees are endangered, evergreen and endemic species in the Hyrcanian forests areas of northern Iran growing in Guilan, Mazandaran and Golestan provinces. This protected evergreen trees species is considered a unique and genetically valuable forest resource for Iran. The habitats of this valuable species, which is located in the lowlands, like other similar trees, always faced with overharvesting problems. But in addition to excessive harvesting, box tree moth Cydalima perspectalis and boxwood blight disease caused by the pathogen Calonectria pseudonaviculata (also known as box blight or buxus blight), as growing problems, are additional causes of boxwood habitats degradation. the outbreak of caspian buxus die-back due to boxwood blight disease was first reported in the summer of 2012 in the buxus forests located in the north of Iran and quickly infected more than 70% of the boxwood forests in the northern part of the country. Since then, there was intense concern that this disease might be the end of boxwood plants, and due to the importance of the subject, various research projects were implemented in research centers and universities in Iran, like other countries in the world. Currently, processes related to biodiversity protection of Hyrcanian boxwood are performed by Natural Resources and Watershed Management Organization as the best protection strategies, in which there are two protection strategies (in situ/ex situ) with different techniques. As the current approach to disease management in the world largely depends on the use of tolerant cultivars, research into boxwood blight resistance continues, so new resistant cultivars continue to be introduced worldwide. However, despite the importance of Caspian boxwood trees, there are no such studies in Iran. The objective of this study was to fill this knowledge gap by evaluating possible hyrcanian buxus accessions resistant to boxwood blight as a further step in improving the effectiveness and efficiency of this species protection management in the conditions of re-facing with the disease. Results of this study will enable growers and landscapers to better manage box blight disease.

In order to investigate the resistance of boxwood accessions from hyrcanian Forest areas of northern Iran to blight disease, infected boxwood habitats were visited in Golestan, Mazandaran and Gilan provinces, and to find boxwood plants with natural resistance, healthy buxux seedlings were collected from these habitats. Because in these types of studies, the process of resistance assessment begins by searching in natural forests for trees that remain healthy relative to their counterparts after exposure to an interest pathogen. In order to ensure buxus seedlings health, the seedlings that were collected from 12 boxwood forest habitats were kept for six months in the Alborz Research Complex (affiliated to the Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands of Iran) and their health was monitored. Finally, from the seedlings of each habitat, the freshest and most equal-sized seedlings were selected and used for greenhouse evaluations. In order to prepare the inoculum from the disease-causing fungus, the combination of four isolates of C. pseudonaviculata species, which had appropriate genetic diversity based on previous studies, was used. Seedlings were inoculated through foliar spraying of fungal spores (1× 105 spores/ml). Three weeks after inoculation, the average number of spots created on the stem and leaves of each boxwood plant as well as the average diameter of the largest leaf spot for each boxwood accession were recorded and analyzed.

The results of inoculation of blight pathogen on boxwood accessions showed that there were similar results in measuring the diameter of the leaf spot with the number of blight spots in each accession, so that, in plants with a higher number of blight spots, there was also a larger diameter of the leaf spot. Also, the results showed that although no accession is completely resistant to this disease and the disease appeared with different degrees in all accession; but a number of accessions are less sensitive to boxwood blight and the disease occurred in them with a lower severity. These results suggest to breeders to find natural resistance or create resistance in boxwood plants against blight disease through breeding programs.

In this study, for the first time, the resistance of different accessions of Buxus sempervirens subsp. hyrcana from boxwood habitats in the north of the country (as the only native and endangered boxwood species of Iran) to blight disease was evaluated. Based on the obtained results, it was determined that some degrees of disease tolerance can be found among different Hyrkani boxwood accessions. These results show that there is potential for plant breeders to select and recommend less susceptible boxwoods or to develop cultivars with improved resistance to boxwood blight.

Increasing need for wood and the other hand declinig wood resources have coused desire for afforestation with fast gowing species such as poplars, but weter deficit and cytosporal cankers on poplar species have become to important limiting factors of poplar cultivation in some parts of Iran. Ectomycorrhizal fungi have significant effect in improving the water status of plants, increasing the survival and growth of plants under stress.. The purpose of this research is investigation the effect of Laccaria bicolor on some morphological and physiological characteristics of poplar seedlings under drought stress and cytosporal canker.

This research was done in factorial form in a completely randomized design with 5 replications. The test factors included the biological factor in two levels (without mycorrhiza and with mycorrhiza) and the stress factor in three levels (no stress, drought stress and Cytospora stress). Inoculation of ectomycorrhizal fungus to poplar seedlings was done 14 weeks after the cuttings were cultivated in the pot and height of the seedlings reached to 50 cm.. Isolation and identification of the fungus causing cytosporal canker was done morphologically and molecularly and it was inoculated into poplar seedlings( after ectomycorrhizal establishment). Drought stress was done by reducing irrigation water based on the agricultural capacity of plants. Measurement of growth characteristics, physiological and enzymatic reactions of plants under stress and non-estress conditions were evaluated in different treatments.

The level of catalase, superoxide dismutase and peroxidase significantly increased in mycorrhizae- drought and mycorrhizae – Cytospora seedlings and had a significant difference of 1% with control seedlings under stress. The level of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the mycorrhizal seedlings under stress increased less than the control seedlings under stress and they have a significant difference with each other at the 1% level. Using of ectomycorrhizal fungus L. bicolor improves the growth characteristics of poplar seedlings, the amount of leaf area, leaf fresh and dry weight, root fresh and dry weight, stem fresh and dry weight and stem height have significant differences with seedlings without symbiosis. The stem diameter in symbiosis seedlings with and the control treatment had no significant difference. Ectomycorrhizal symbiosis has led to an increase in photosynthesis, stomata conductance, intercellular carbon dioxide and transpiration in the symbiotic seedlings compared to the control treatment. In the drought and cytospora stress, plants without symbiosis had a lower performance in photosynthesis, transpiration, and stomatal conductance, which led to a decrease in growth in these treatments.

In this study, Cytospora chrysosperma was identified as the causative agent of cytosporal canker. Findings of this research showed that the ectomycorrhizal fungus Laccaria bicolor was able to create symbiosis with P.alba in greenhouse conditions. This symbiosis has increased growth, improved plant physiology, and increased plant resistance in plants with symbiosis compared to seedlings without symbiosis under drought and cytospora canker. Therefore, considering the improvement of the water condition, increase growth and biomass, and modification of the physiological characteristics of the inoculated plants with ectomycorrhizal fungi compared to the control, Establishing this ectomycorrhizal interaction can be introduced as a new strategy to increase success of seedlings in poplar plantations for wood cultivation.

 Beech trees (Oriental beech: Fagus orientalis Lipsky.), native to Hyrcanian forests of Iran, are considered as one of the most valuable forest tree species in the north of the Iran. Biscogniauxia nummularia (Bull.) Kuntze is an endophytic fungus which acts as a pathogenic fungus under favorable conditions and causes strip-cankers (commonly known as charcoal canker) in Fagus species. The disease occurs in tree hosts affected by stress. High temperatures and summer droughts are favorable conditions for causing and distributing this disease in the forest.

During the field surveys across the beech forests of Sangdeh region in Mazandaran province, beech trees with severe symptoms of charcoal canker were observed. The most visible symptoms of the disease in the form of round spots to black stripes on the trunk and branches, as well as dieback of the beech tree branches in the area. Several samples were collected from infected parts of oriental beech trees and transferred to the plant pathology laboratory. Microscopic slides of the fungal stroma were prepared from infected tree bark and subjected to microscopic observation based on valid identification keys. Furthermore, the samples were cultured on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) culture medium and the pathogenic agent was identified after purification by hyphal tip and single spore techniques, using microscopic examination and morphological characteristics.

Results showed that Biscogniauxia nummularia is the agent of disease, which causes severe damage to beech trees and has already been identified as cause of beech charcoal canker in many European countries. This fungal species has some special morphological characteristics, including applanate stroma, ostioles are slightly papillate to nearly at the same level as the stromatal surface, ascus apical apparatus blue in iodine and Melzer's reagents, so it is separated from other species. This is the first report of identification of B. nummularia as the causal agent of beech canker disease from Iran. This fungus spends most of its life cycle as an endophyte, and under unfavorable environmental conditions, especially drought stress. B. nummularia takes advantage to alter host physiology, invading host tissue and causing black bark cankers on trunk and branches, known as strip cankers, and wood decay in mature trees.  

The direct relationship between the consequences of climate change, especially water and temperature stress in the host and the development of forest pathogens in the case of several important and key pathogenic fungi, including B. nummularia, has been reported by various researchers in the world, and it has been determined that environmental stress plays an important role in the development of this disease on beech trees in different parts of the world. Meanwhile, as one of the requirements of disease management, it is important to identify the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the populations of this fungus in Iran and to identify the distribution and frequency of the disease, which can be very useful in choosing its management strategies. On the other hand, due to the prediction of progressive adverse climate changes in the future, which are an important factor in the development of the disease, continuous monitoring of current changes in beech natural habitats should be included in forest ecosystem monitoring programs to predict future changes, possible ecosystem consequences, and as a vital part of sustainable forest management.

The forest is one of the terrestrial ecosystems. From the point of ecology science, the forest is a complete and complex ecosystem, the completeness of which requires the balance of many forces, quantitatively and qualitatively, in this balance, fungi are of the important sources in ecosystems affecting on the other organisms and are considered as a part of forest biodiversity. Therefore, knowing the ecological conditions of fungi is the first step for studies, that if the study complete, the research project and implementation plans will be more successful. So that, this study investigated the effect of physiographic factors on the distribution of polypores fungi in Neka forests of Mazandaran province.

The study area was selected by forest plan and expert opinion of forestry plan. After forest survey, the series were selected in altitude profile. Then, the forest was divided into three altitude classes by 1:25000 topographical map. The first class was 200-400 meters a.s.l., the second class was 400-800 meters and the third class was above 800 meters a.s.l. In each altitudinal class, 30 10R-plots were random-systematically collected. The distance between the plots on the transect in each class was considered at least 500 meters. Investigations were carried out on each sample and the samples were transferred to the laboratory. Fungi identification was done by checking the macroscopic and microscopic characteristics and also using the methods in scientific sources. Ecological information was recorded in the data collection forms. Two-way agreement tables and Kramer's statistic and also Spearman's correlation were used to investigate the relationship between ecological factors such as season, altitude, aspect and slope with the abundance of fungi. Analyzes were done by SPSS v.16 software.

  The results showed that among the 1057 polypore fungi, 39 polypores fungi were identified. These species were on 10 trees and shrub as host. The highest abundance was related to Trametes versicolor (about 22%). Polyporaceae with 13 genera and 20 species (50%) has the most abundance and Hapalopilaceae and Schizoporaceae with one genus and one species (3%) has the lowest abundance. The highest number of fungi was recorded in seasons autumn with 382 cases (36%), summer with 371 cases (35%) and spring with 304 cases (29%). The results showed that the number of fungi that was collected in the altitude of 400-800 meters with 38% abundance were more than the two other altitude ranges. In the general survey, the abundance of polypore fungi identified with directions in the study area was determined that the northern aspect had the highest abundance with 54%. Furthermore, fungi had the most abundant in slopes from 0 to 25% (with 56% abundance), 25 to 50% slopes (with 42% abundance) and in slopes above 50% (with 2% abundance), respectively.

Since any change in fungal community function can affect the health and production of the plant community, it is necessary to study the relationship between the abundance of fungi and physiographic factors in order to maintain the health, diversity, abundance and production of fungi.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of white rot fungus (Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd) on physical and mechanical properties of treated and untreated poplar wood (Populus deltoides Marshall and P. nigra L.). Heat treatment was used as wood modification. Heat-treated and untreated poplar wood specimens were evaluated after exposing to the white rot fungus for 16 weeks. The evaluated properties was included: laccase activity, mass loss, density changes, impact strength and compression strength parallel to grain due to thermal modification and also fungus efficiency. Evaluation of lacase activity showed more efficiency of this enzyme in controls in compared to modified specimens in which also caused more mass loss. In both two poplar wood species, thermal modification reduced the density and the impact strength of the specimens, but improved the compression strength parallel to grain. Evaluation of physical and mechanical properties of the specimens exposed to white rot fungus also showed that thermal modification limits efficiency of this fungus on both poplar wood species. As a result, the reductions in the studied physical and mechanical properties, including mass loss, density, compression strength parallel to grain, and impact strength, were significantly more pronounced in the control group than the modified specimens.

 The purpose of this study was to evaluate effectiveness of brown rot fungus on ash (Fraxinus Sp.) and spruce (Picea Sp.) thermo-wood and also thermally modification on fungal functionality. In first step, prepared wood samples of both species were heat treated under 212 ºC for 3 hours. Afterwards, heat-treated and untreated wood specimens were exposed to brown rot fungus for 16 weeks based on EN 313 and the functionality of fungal destructive agent and also its effect on physical and mechanical properties were finally analyzed. The obtained results showed that the brown rot fungus has been more efficiency on untreated specimens in compared with thermo-wood in both two wood species and caused more destruction and mass loss. Moreover, the results revealed that some physical and mechanical properties include density, compression parallel to grain and impact strength of exposed heated specimens to brown rot fungus were more than unexposed heated specimens to this fungus. Evaluation of laccase activity which produced by brown rot fungus showed more its effect on controls than heat treated specimens in both wood species. Based on the results, thermally modification can generally causes improvement of biological resistance, reduction of some physical and mechanical properties as well as more stability of applied properties of ash and Picea wood which exposed to the brown rot fungus.

Cultivation of the summer truffle, Tuber aestivum Vittad., has become as a new agricultural activity that for rural economies is often considerably more beneficial than conventional agriculture and also promotes reforestation, as well as land use sustainability. Considering examples from Italy, Hungary, Spain and France, truffle cultivation induces the economic and social development of small and rural communities. Because there is no tradition of creating truffle gardens in Iran, knowledge of environmental factors regulating the formation of T. aestivum fruiting bodies is limited. Since the establishment of truffle plantations in the world, several studies have been conducted to improve their productivity and stability. Success in the continuation of truffle plantations depends clearly on the mycorrhizal status of the host trees over the years, from inoculated seedlings to truffle producing trees. Therefore, monitoring the status of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the natural habitats of truffles and increasing knowledge about ectomycorrhizal communities of T. aestivum host species is crucial to ensure the successful production of summer truffles in truffle orchards. In this study, the presence of T. aestivum ectomycorrhizae on roots of oak (Quercus castaneifolia) and its abundance in natural habitats of truffle fungi in three selected sites in Golestan province was investigated and the diversity and structure of other ectomycorrhizal fungi were evaluated. In selecting the studied sites, differences in altitude, dominant geographical direction and plant species in the regions were considered. The results showed that although the species composition was up to 70% similar between sites, but the number of fungal species, diversity and species richness of fungi were different among sites with different host plants and the site with only oak.

Box tree moth Cydalima perspectalis (Walker, 1859) is one of the most important monophagous pests. This pest feeds on the leaves and bark of the Box trees stem and in some cases causes the death of the trees. In order to pest monitoring in 2017, 160 Delta pheromone traps and to investigate the possibility of pest control by pheromone traps in 2018, 600 funnel pheromone traps were installed in 450 hectare boxwood forest of Cheshmeh - Bulbul (Bandar-e-Gaz, Golestan Province). Also, 2 light traps and 4 pheromone- light sticky traps with photocell lamps were installed in the studied area. The results showed three flight peaks for box tree moth as well as the best time for chemical control and use the pheromone traps were determined. Our results also indicated the effectiveness of funnel-pheromone traps in reducing the damage of box tree moths. A significant difference between the number of boxwood moths trapped in pheromones with and without pheromones (P-value <0.05) was obvious, so that the combination of light traps with pheromones increases their efficiency.

 Orosanga japonica (Hemiptera: Ricaniidae) is an invasive and polyphagous pest in the Palearctic region collected and reported from the northern part of Iran on citrus orchards in 2010. Nymphs and adults of the pest cause economic and critical damage to different plants by direct feeding and heavy deposits of honeydew on leaves. Despite various management practices, successful control of this pest has been difficult due to its rapid development and reproduction rate. Beauveria bassiana, an entomopathogenic fungus (EPF), has been extensively researched for its ability to manage a variety of insect pests and appears to be a potential alternative to conventional insecticides.

 In the present study, in the course of a forest survey in the distribution areas of O. japonica in Mazandaran province, larvae were infected with some native isolates of fungal mycelia were observed. After morphological and molecular identification, two fungal-infected specimens were confirmed as B. bassiana. Fungal collections were characterized by amplifying and sequencing the ITS region of rDNA using primers ITS1 and ITS4. The susceptibility of adults of O. japonica to two EPFs isolates was evaluated using the leaf dipping method and the direct spraying method under laboratory conditions. Data were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (SAS, 2002) with insect mortality as the response variable. Means were separated at alpha=0.01 using Duncan´s test. The LC50 and LC90 values of EPFs and the mean lethal times of LT50 were estimated by Probit analysis using SPSS Statistics 17.0

Two different fungal isolates presented white to cream colonies with irregular edges and powdery appearance, reproductive structures, and conidia with typical morphology, size, and color of B. bassiana species. The mean lethal concentration values (LC50) of isolate 1 and isolate 2 to were 4.00 × 106 and 3.3 × 106 conidia ml-1 (leaf dipping method) and 5.4 × 106 and 4.7× 106 conidia ml-1 (direct spraying method) on the adults of O. japonica respectively in the laboratory tests after 96 h post treatments, at 25°C and 60% relative humidity. The similarities of the ITS sequences of both two EPFs were 99-100% to those of B. bassiana in the GenBank database.

The natural pathogens of pests have long been known to play a significant role in the population dynamics of many important forest pests and provide assistance to manage pests and develop tools for management. Fungal diversity in the moist and temperate Hyrcanian forests can vary widely due to diverse ecological conditions. Generally, these findings could help establish an efficient management strategy for O. japonica as an invasive pest and the development of mycoinsecticide from an indigenous fungus. Future research could investigate the effect of other native EPF isolates and developing techniques in fungal formulation against O. japonica.

 The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of heat treatment on bio-durability and some physical and mechanical properties of beech (Fagus Sp.) and pine (Pinus Sp.). Thermo-wood samples were prepared from beech and pine species based on thermo-D process. Heat-treated and untreated wood specimens were evaluated after exposing to brown rot fungus for 16 weeks. The laccase activity and its effect on mass loss and wood density were investigated. Results showed that deterrence value of heat treatment on mass loss caused by brown rot fungus have been 76.92% and 44.32% in beech and pine wood, respectively. So, laccase activity and its efficiency on mass loss of control specimens was more than heat treated wood. The results also showed that thermally modification at high temperatures reduced wood density. However, it had deterrent effect on decrease of density caused by brown rot fungus activity. Moreover, some mechanical properties including impact strength and compression parallel to grain of wood specimens were measured. The results generally showed that thermal modification improves the bio-durability of both wood species. The results also revealed reduction of mechanical properties due to heat treatment except compression parallel to grain.

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as biological control agents of pests offer an environmentally safe alternative. Advances in mass-production and formulation technology of EPNs, the discovery of numerous efficacious isolates, and the desirability of reducing pesticide usage have resulted in a surge of scientific and commercial interest in these nematodes. This paper will review the successful use of EPNs for the control of insect pests above ground in the world. So, the efficacy of two native isolates of EPNs was evaluated against Cydalima perspectalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in laboratory conditions. The lethal concentration 50 (LC50) values of the Steinernema borjomiense and Oscheius myriophilus were 60.16 and 74.53 IJs/larva-1 on fifth instar larvae of C. perspectalis, respectively, after 48 hours at 25 °C and 60% relative humidity. These results revealed the good potential of EPNs in the biological control of C. perspectalis. In the field of biological pest control using EPNs in the country, in addition to the need for breakthroughs in the identification of EPNs isolates with high pathogenicity as well as formulation technology, the use of EPNs will need to be furthered through education, major changes in insecticides use pattern, legislative and further restrictions on chemical pesticides by organizations.

In recent years, increasing temperature and water deficiency have caused restrictions on poplar cultivation. Ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM) play an effective role in increasing plant tolerance against water stress, salinity, and the defense of plants against pests and diseases. In this study, isolation, morphological and molecular identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi of three poplar habitats in Guilan province (Shafaroud, Gisoom and Safra-basteh sites) in Iran was carried out. Based on morphological and molecular data, the ectomycorrhizal fungus Paxillus involutus was identified as poplar ectomycorrhizae. Fungal mycelium was used to inoculate seedlings of Populus alba L. in the greenhouse condition, and the effect of the ectomycorrhizal fungus on the plant growth parameters was measured in water stress and irrigation. The results showed that establishing a symbiotic relationship between poplar seedlings and ectomycorrhizal fungus P. involutus was successful. Moreover, inoculation of the symbiotic fungus positively affected improving the growth characteristics of the inoculated plants. Thus, symbiotic seedlings with ectomycorrhizal fungus were significantly different from the non-mycorrhizal seedlings in plant growth variables including root fresh and dry weight, leaf fresh weight, stem fresh and dry weight, leaf area, and stem height (p<0.01). Also, the use of symbiotic fungus reduced the negative effects of water deficit stress on poplar seedlings and increased the tolerance in the mycorrhizal plants. Based on these findings, a coordinated plant-fungal system plays an effective role in improving the performance of poplar plants under water-stress conditions.

Today, in near-to-nature forestry, biodiversity conservation, with emphasis on forests conservation, as a valuable genetic resource, has received much attention. Deadwood, as a habitat, plays a key role in diversity and abundance of saproxylic fungi in forest ecosystems. The uncontrolled exploitation, and the management programs applied in forests, have significantly reduced the deadwood volumes and diversity, jeopardizing diversity and abundance of saproxylic fungi. In this study, 29 saproxylic fungal species belonging to 15 families from the phylum Basidiomycota were collected from Asalem forest, Guilan province, northern Iran. The recovered species were identified based upon their morphological characters, using available identification keys. The results showed that the family Polyporaceae (31%) and the species Trametes versicolor (18.4%) have the highest abundance between other families and identified species, respectively. The importance of saproxylic fungi, introduction of deadwood, as a habitat and a key factor in biodiversity of saproxylic fungi in forest ecosystems, have also been discussed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of heat treatment on biological resistance and some physical and mechanical properties of paulownia wood (Paulownia fortunei). Thermo-wood specimens were prepared from paulownia wood based on thermo-D process. Heat-treated and untreated wood specimens were evaluated after exposing to brown rot fungus for 16 weeks. The laccase activity and its effect on mass loss and wood density were investigated. Moreover, some mechanical properties including impact strength and compression parallel to grain was measured. Evaluation of laccase activity showed more efficiency of this enzyme in untreated specimens in compared with thermo-wood and also it resulted in more mass loss. Therefore, heat treatment can improve biological resistance. The results also showed that heat treatment reduces density and impact strength of specimens, but improve compression parallel to the grain. Investigation of physical and mechanical properties of specimens exposed to brown rot fungus also showed that heat treatment reduced efficiency of this fungus on paulownia wood. So that, the value of mass loss, density and compression parallel to the grain in controls were more than thermo-wood. However, reduction of impact strength of thermo-wood was more than controls.

Caspian boxwood is one of the most valuable broadleaf evergreen trees in Hyrcanian forests and unfortunately, in the last decade, it has been affected by blight disease caused by the fungus Cylindrocladium buxicola, which is a serious threat to the survival and production of boxwood. Due to the presence of boxwood trees in the forest ecosystems and green spaces of urban areas, safe and environmentally friendly compounds should be used to control the disease. Beauveria bassiana is a plant endophytic fungus with pathogenic ability in insects, whose properties have been proven to increase plant growth, biocontrol pests and limit the activity of phytopathogenic fungi in several host plants. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of some B. bassiana isolates obtained from the Cydalima perspectalis in controlling the fungus C. buxicola. Antagonistic activity of four isolates of B. bassiana was evaluated using double culture in laboratory conditions and also in the plants by inoculation of endophyte fungus in seeds of plants and inoculation of pathogen fungus in leaves. All four isolates were able to establish endophytic relationship on boxwood seedlings. All isolates showed significant antifungal activity against C. buxicola (53–88%) in vitro. As a result of inoculating the plant with endophytic fungi, a high protective effect against blight fungus was observed and the percentage of leaf damage in boxwood plants inoculated with endophytic fungi was significantly lower than the plants that were inoculated only by the pathogen. The results of this research pave the way for a more effective use of B. bassiana in the integrated and simultaneous management of the leaf–eating pest of Caspian boxwood and the blight fungus of these plants, as well as increasing the growth of the host plant..