مازیار محیطی اصلی

Feather biodegradation is an effective alternative to other processing methods.

This study aims to investigate the effects of hydrolyzed feather meal (HFM) on broilers’ antioxidant status, meat quality, and immune response. 

In October 2022, 480-day-old Ross 308 male broilers were used for 42 days in a completely randomized design with eight treatments and five replicates (12 chicks/replicate) in the research farm of Agriculture Faculty, Guilan University (Rasht City, Iran). The experimental diets were as follows: (1) control diet (without feather meal [FM]), (2), (3), (4), (5), (6), (7), and (8) all containing 4% raw FM (RFM), HFM by autoclave (Au-HFM), fermented FM (FFM) by Bacillus licheniformis (Bl-FFM), FFM by Bacillus subtilis (Bs-FFM), FFM by Aspergillus niger (An-FFM), FFM by B. licheniformis+B. subtilis+A. niger (Co-FFM), and HFM by an enzyme (En-HFM), respectively.

The results of the in vitro experiment showed that 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazl (DPPH) and 2, 2ʹ-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical-scavenging activities, as well as microorganism count of FFM, increased with increasing fermentation time (P≤0.05). Also, the pH of FFM significantly decreased by increasing the fermentation time (P≤0.05). The DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging activities of FFM were higher than those of RFM, Au-HFM, and En-HFM (P≤0.05). The in vivo experiment results showed that the total antioxidant capacity (TAC) serum levels, glutathione peroxidase (GPX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) in the FFM were higher than those in the control and other treatments (P≤0.05). Compared to control and other treatments, broilers fed FFM had lower meat malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, higher meat pH, and higher water-holding capacity at 0, 7, and 14 d of the breast meat storage, as well as lower serum MDA levels (P≤0.05). Broilers fed FFM had higher antibody titers against Newcastle disease virus, lower heterophil count, and lower heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, as well as higher total anti-sheep red blood cell (anti-SRBC) titer, immunoglobulin G (IgG), and immunoglobulin M (IgM), compared to the control and other treatments (P≤0.05).

Fermentation of FM increased its antioxidant properties, improved the body’s antioxidative status, and contributing to improved the meat quality and immune response of broilers.

The use of medicinal plants and their derivatives can stimulate feed consumption, increase daily weight, feed conversion ratio, increase shelf life, improve the health and function of the digestive system. It seems that the use of an optimal mixture of several medicinal plants in the diet has positive effects on performance and carcass quality of broiler chickens in comparison to each one. Nowadays, with the popularization of ready-made feed in raising broiler chickens, many breeders tend to add food additives in drinking water. Therefore, it is a question that adding these compounds in feed or drinking water makes a difference. Three commercial plant additives that are used today are Coxan, O.X. Plant, and Entex. Coxan contains oregano (with the active ingredient of menthol) and garlic (with the active ingredients of allin and allicin), O.X. Plant contains savory (with the active ingredients of carvacrol and thymol), thyme (with the active ingredients of thymol and carvacrol) and red pepper oleoresin (with the active ingredient of capsaicin), Entex contains cinnamon (with the active ingredient of cinnamaldehyde), and garlic and eucalyptus (with the active ingredient of cineol). The aim of this research was to compare the effects of using these commercial plant additives (in water and feed) on growth performance, intestinal microflora and morphology and immune response of broilers.
A total of 336 Ross 308 broilers were examined in a completely randomized design with seven treatments, four replications, and 12 chickens per replication. Experimental treatments included: control (without phytogenic in feed or water), Coxan in feed (300 mg/kg) and in water (200 mL/1000 L), O.X. Plant in feed (200 mg/kg) and in water (135 mL/1000 L) and Entex in feed (500 mg/kg) and water (350 mL/1000 L). Daily weight gain, daily feed intake, daily water intake and feed conversion ratio were measured. At 42 days of age, two birds were selected from each experimental unit and after slaughter, the length of the intestinal components was measured separately (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum). To determine the microbial population, samples were taken from the ileum of chickens. EMB culture medium was used to determine Escherichia coli population and MRS culture medium was used for Lactobacillus bacteria. To check the humoral immune response, 0.1 mL of 25% sheep red blood cell solution in PBS was injected into the breast muscle of chickens on the 12th and 29th days of rearing. Blood was taken from the chickens on the 28th, 35th and 42nd days of breeding and the levels of Anti-SRBC, and immunoglobulins G and M were calculated. Antibody titer against Newcastle disease was measured by HI method.
The effect of additives in water and feed on average daily feed consumption, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio and daily water consumption was not significant in the whole period. Since the amount of water consumed by the chickens did not change, it can be concluded that the additives added to the water in the examined amounts do not have a spicy or unpleasant taste that would cause the birds to refuse to drink water. The relative length of duodenum, jejunum, cecum and colon was not affected by experimental treatments. However, the relative length of the ileum was lower in the chickens that received Entex in the feed compared to the control group. No significant difference was observed in the relative length of different parts of the intestine in the treatments that received herbal additives either in feed or water. The relative length of duodenum, jejunum, cecum, and colon, villus length, villus area, crypt depth, thickness of lamina propria, thickness of muscular layer, and thickness of advantis layer were not affected by experimental treatments. The chickens that consumed 500 mg/kg of Entex herbal additive of feed had a lower villus width in the ileum region compared to the control group chickens. The population of Escherichia coli bacteria in the ileum of chickens that had received the addition of O.X. Plant and Entex in the feed decreased compared to the control group. The population of Escherichia coli bacteria in the Entex treatment in the feed was also reduced compared to the Coxan treatment in the feed. The population of Lactobacillus bacteria in the ileum of chickens that received Coxan in water, O.X. Plant in feed and water, and Entex in feed increased compared to the control group. There was no significant difference in the population of Escherichia coli and Lactobacillus bacteria in the treatments that received herbal additives either in feed or in water. The use of plant essential oils in poultry feed, while improving the microbial population by increasing the number of lactobacilli, by improving the morphological characteristics of the intestine, probably improves the ability of digestion and absorption in the digestive system and improves the growth efficiency of broiler chickens. Antibody levels against SRBC were higher at 28, 35, and 42 days in all chickens consuming herbal additives in water. The performance of animals is significantly influenced by the state of health and safety of the animal. A weak or stressed immune system causes weight loss when dealing with infectious diseases, so the use of immune system stimulating substances can increase performance by improving the immune status. In raising poultry, it is important to strengthen the immune system to prevent the occurrence of diseases.
The results of this research showed that the commercial plant additives of Coxan, O.X. Plant, and Entex had no significant effect on growth performance, relative length and intestinal morphology. The population of opportunistic bacteria Escherichia coli was significantly reduced compared to the control group with the addition of O.X. Plant and Entex in the diet. In general, it can be concluded that adding tested herbal additives not only did not have a negative effect on the drinking water consumption of broiler chickens, but also using them in water improved the immune responses of broilers more than adding them in feed. A total of 336 Ross 308 broilers were examined in a completely randomized design with 7 treatments, 4 replications, and 12 chickens per replication. Experimental treatments included: control (without phytogenic in feed or water), Coxan in feed (300 mg/kg) and in water (200 mL/1000 L), O.X. Plant in feed (200 mg/kg) and in water (135 mL/1000 L) and Entex in feed (500 mg/kg) and water (350 mL/1000 L). Daily weight gain, daily feed intake, daily water intake and feed conversion ratio were measured. At 42 days of age, 2 birds were selected from each experimental unit and after slaughter, the length of the intestinal components was measured separately (duodenum, jejunum, ileum). In order to determine the microbial population, samples were taken from the ileum of chickens. EMB culture medium was used to determine Escherichia coli population and MRS culture medium was used for Lactobacillus bacteria. To check the humoral immune response, 0.1 ml of 25% sheep red blood cell solution in PBS was injected into the breast muscle of chickens on the 12th and 29th days of rearing. Blood was taken from the chickens on the 28th, 35th and 42nd days of breeding and the levels of Anti-SRBC, immunoglobulin G and M were calculated. Antibody titer against Newcastle disease was measured by HI method. The effect of additives in water and feed on average daily feed consumption, daily weight gain, feed conversion ratio and daily water consumption was not significant in the whole period. Since the amount of water consumed by the chickens did not change, it can be concluded that the additives added to the water in the examined amounts do not have a spicy or unpleasant taste that would cause the birds to refuse to drink water. The relative length of duodenum, jejunum, cecum and colon was not affected by experimental treatments. However, the relative length of the ileum was lower in the chickens that received Entex in the feed compared to the control group. No significant difference was observed in the relative length of different parts of the intestine in the treatments that received herbal additives either in feed or water. The relative length of duodenum, jejunum, cecum, and colon, villus length, villus area, crypt depth, thickness of lamina propria, thickness of muscular layer, thickness of advantis layer were not affected by the experimental treatments. The chickens that consumed 500 mg/kg of Entex herbal additive of feed had a lower villus width in the ileum region compared to the control group chickens. The population of Escherichia coli bacteria in the ileum of chickens that had received the addition of O.X. Plant and Entex in the feed decreased compared to the control group. The population of Escherichia coli bacteria in the Entex treatment in the feed was also reduced compared to the Coxan treatment in the feed. The population of Lactobacillus bacteria in the ileum of chickens that received Coxan in water, O.X. Plant in feed and water and Entex in feed increased compared to the control group. There was no significant difference in the population of Escherichia coli and Lactobacillus bacteria in the treatments that received herbal additives either in feed or in water. The use of plant essential oils in poultry feed, while improving the microbial population by increasing the number of lactobacilli, by improving the morphological characteristics of the intestine, probably improves the ability of digestion and absorption in the digestive system and improves the growth efficiency of broiler chickens. Antibody levels against SRBC were higher at 28, 35 and 42 days in all chickens consuming herbal additives in water. The performance of animals is significantly influenced by the state of health and safety of the animal. A weak or stressed immune system causes weight loss when dealing with infectious diseases, so the use of immune system stimulating substances can increase performance by improving the immune status. In raising poultry, it is important to strengthen the immune system to prevent the occurrence of diseases. The results of this research showed that the commercial plant additives Coxan, O.X. Plant and Entex had no significant effect on growth performance, relative length and intestinal morphology. The population of opportunistic bacteria Escherichia coli was significantly reduced compared to the control group with the addition of O.X. Plant and Entex in the diet. In general, it can be concluded that adding tested herbal additives not only does not have a negative effect on the drinking water consumption of broiler chickens, but using them in water improves the immune responses of broilers more than adding them in feed.

The effect of chick initial body weight and dietary nutrients density on growth performance and immune response were investigated using 360 Ross 308 one-day-old straight run chicks (mixed sex) in a completely randomized design with 2×3 factorial arrangement of treatments, four replicates and 15 birds per replicate. The initial body weight of chicks was grouped as 42±1 g (standard weight); 38±1 g (light weight; 10% under standard weight); 46±1 g (heavy weight; 10% over standard weight) while the nutrients density of the diet was either 5% lower than the nutritional recommendation of Ross 308 (typical commercial diet in Iran), or as recommended by Ross 308 manual (high-density diet). Chickens fed the high-density diet had higher daily weight gain and lower conversion ratio than chickens fed the typical diets (P<0.05). The effect of dietary density and initial body weight of chicks on carcass components and weight of internal organs were not significant except for heart. Broilers fed the high-density diet and heavy weight had higher antibody titers to sheep red blood cell (P<0.05). Light chicks fed the high-density diets had greater total anti sheep red blood cell and immunoglobulin G titers than light chicks fed the typical diets (P<0.05). Results indicate that feeding light chicks with high-density diets increases their growth rate compared to the chicks with standard or heavy weights. Moreover, feeding diets with a high density of nutrients to light chicks can improve immune responses.

The effect of the type of fat and different levels of betonies in the diet on production and quality indicators of feed (pellet) was investigated by using a completely randomized design with nine treatments and four replications. The experimental treatments included the combination of 0 and 1.5% crude soybean oil and calcium fat powder with three levels of betonies (0, 1 and, 2%). The measured indicators include the efficiency of the pellet press machine (electricity consumption, production rate per unit of time and dry matter of the final product), qualitative indicators of pellet after production (strength and hardness) and the percentage of intact pellets after feeder plats and lines in the poultry farm environment. The use of fat in the feed reduced the amount of electricity consumption and improved the production rate per unit of time and dry matter percentage of the final product compared to non-fat treatments. In this case, the production rate per unit of time in the fat powder treatment with 2% bentonite was higher than other treatments (P< 0.05). The pellet durability index that was evaluated by tumbling method in fat powder treatment without bentonite was higher than other experimental treatments (P<0.05). In addition, the percentage of intact pellets after auto feeder lines was higher in fat-containing treatments, particularly fat powder treatment without bentonite, than other treatments (P<0.05). The highest correlation coefficient between the percentage of intact pellets and the pellet durability index was related to the Tumbling method in auto feeder lines. Based on the results of the present experiment, using fat powder instead of oil in pellet feed and adding one percent of bentonite to the diet improves the pellet quality and its production performance indicators in the factory.

Essential oils are volatile and concentrated liquids extracted from various parts of medicinal plants. In recent years, the use of essential oils in animal nutrition has gained interest as an alternative for antibiotic growth promoters. The main issue with using essential oils in poultry diets is the high volatility, which must be addressed by developing encapsulation techniques to preserve their efficacy. The purpose of the current experiment was to determine the effects of dietary supplementation of microencapsulated essential oil of Satureja khuzistanica on growth performance, oxidative stability of meat, and intestinal microflora of broilers.
A total of 320 1-d-old Ross 308 chicks were studied in a completely randomized design with a 2×4 factorial arrangement of treatments. The factors were two administration forms of essential oils (free and microencapsulated) and four levels of dietary supplementation (0, 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg). The experiment consisted of eight treatments, four replicates, and 10 broilers per replicate. The essential oil of Satureja khuzistanica was microencapsulated using a 2% sodium alginate solution, which was mixed and homogenized before being transferred into a funnel and dropped into a beaker containing a 5% calcium chloride solution using a needle from a syringe. The beads were gently stirred for an hour to solidify. After one hour, the beads were filtered through a sieve and washed with distilled water. The beads were thoroughly rinsed before being air dried at 23 °C for 12 hours and kept in airtight containers. Body weight and feed consumption were monitored in pens weekly. From these data, average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated weekly and throughout the entire rearing period. The European production efficiency factor (EEF) was also calculated for the whole rearing period. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of Satureja khuzistanica essential oil was determined by broth microdilution method for each of Escherichia coli, coliforms and lactobacillus bacteria. On day 42, two birds from each replicate were slaughtered and ileal samples were taken for microflora analysis. Total Escherichia coli, coliforms, and lactobacilli were enumerated in ileal digesta by the plate method using specific mediums. The thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS) assay was used to determine the oxidative lipid changes of the meat.
The in vitro results demonstrated that the MIC of savory essential oil against gram-negative Escherichia coli and coliforms was higher (0.276) than its MIC for gram-positive lactobacillus bacteria (0.069). Throughout the in vivo study, the ADFI of broilers fed the diet with 150 mg/kg of essential oil was lower than the control (103.3 vs. 108.8; P<0.05). The ADG of broilers fed 100 mg essential oil/kg of diet was more than those fed 150 mg/kg (60.1 vs. 54.2; P<0.05). Broilers fed microencapsulated essential oil in their diet had a higher (P<0.05) EEF than those fed free essential oil. The addition of savory essential oil at 100 and 150 mg/kg of diet reduced (P<0.05) the lipid peroxidation in broilers meat stored for 60 and 90 days compared to the control. Lipid peroxidation of meat was lower (P<0.05) in broilers fed microencapsulated essential oil in the diet than those fed free essential oils. The addition of savory essential oil at different levels of 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg diet reduced the count of coliforms in the ileum compared to the control (P<0.05). Moreover, the data indicated that the addition of the essential oil at 100 and 150 mg/kg diet reduced the number of Escherichia coli (P<0.05). The bacterial count of coliforms and E. coli was lower in broilers fed microencapsulated essential oil than those fed free essential oil.
The results of this study showed that supplementation of Satureja khuzistanica essential oil in the diet improved broilers' performance and intestinal microflora. Microencapsulation of savory essential oil with alginate improved broiler growth performance, EEF, and increased the antibacterial activity of the essential oil which resulted in a further decrease of pathogenic bacteria. According to the findings of this study, 100 mg of microencapsulated savory essential oil per kg of broilers’ diet can be recommended due to its beneficial effects on performance, oxidative stability of meat, and intestinal microflora.

Organic acids are one of the alternatives to antibiotics growth promotor which have beneficial effects on animal performance and gastrointestinal microbial population. In general, addition of organic acids into the feed lowers pH of the feed and gastrointestinal tract, stimulates growth, helps beneficial bacteria to overcome pathogenic bacteria, and reduces toxic metabolites produced by harmful bacteria.

A total of 240 day-old Ross 308 male broiler chicks were divided into 4 treatments, 4 replicates, and 15 broiler chickens per replicate in a completely randomized design. Experimental treatments were included 0, 200, 300 and 500 mL of acidifier in 1000 L drinking water.

Feed conversion ratio in broilers that received two levels of 200 and 500 mL of acidifier per 1000 liters in drinking water decreased compared to the control treatment (p<0.01). European efficiency index was higher in the whole acidifier levels than the control and a linear increasing trend was observed (p<0.05). Broilers received 500 mL of acidifier in water had the lowest FCR (1.64 vs. 1.80; p<0.01) and the highest EEF (394 vs. 332; p<0.01) compared with the control. The weight of bursa of Fabricius, spleen and pancreas in broilers received graded levels of acidifier was higher than the control (p<0.05). The pH of the proventriculus, duodenum and jejunum of broilers that received 500 mL of acidifier decreased compared to the control (p<0.05). Administration of graded levels of acidifier in drinking water had no effect on Lactobacillus, coliforms and Escherichia coli count in ileum (p>0.05). The thickness of the lamina propria layer increased in broilers received 300 mL of acidifier (p<0.05). Administration of acidifier in drinking water had no effect on antibody titer against SRBC and Newcastle.

The results indicate that adding 500 mL of acidifier in 1000 L drinking water improves growth performance by increasing the weight of digestive organs such as pancreas and acidifying the initial areas of the digestive tract.

Organic acids are one of the alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters. They have beneficial effects on poultry performance and gastrointestinal microbial balance. In general, the addition of organic acids to the diet lowers the pH of the diet and gastrointestinal tract, stimulates growth, helps to overcome the population of beneficial bacteria over pathogenic bacteria, and reduces toxic metabolites produced by harmful bacteria. The purpose of this study was to determine the antibacterial effects of encapsulated versus non-encapsulated organic acids (OA) supplementation in drinking water on intestinal microbiota and broilers' growth performance.
A total of 360-day-old Ross 308 male broiler chicks were divided into six treatments, four replicates, and 15 chicks per replicate in a completely randomized design. The experimental treatments included: a negative control (without organic acids; OA, in drinking water), a positive control (200 mL of a commercial OA, acidifier 4+ in 1000 L drinking water), 500 and 1000 mL non-encapsulated blend of OA, and 500 and 1000 g encapsulated blend of OA in 1000 L drinking water. The blend of OA was composed of butyric, propionic, and acetic acids. Body weight and feed intake were measured weekly on a pen basis. From these data, average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily water intake (ADWI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated over the total rearing period. The European production efficiency factor (EPEF) was also calculated for the entire period of the trial. On day 42, gastrointestinal samples were collected from a total of 48 sacrificed birds (n = 12 birds from each experimental group) for pH and microflora analysis. Digesta from different sections of the gastrointestinal tract was collected and pH was measured using a digital pH meter. Total coliforms, lactobacilli, and Escherichia coli were counted in ileal digesta using a plate method with the use of a specific medium.
Broilers with an encapsulated blend of OA in drinking water had higher (P<0.05) body weight, ADG, and EPEF, and lower (P<0.05) FCR than the negative control. Broilers in the PC group and those with OA in their drinking water exhibited greater final BW, ADG, and FCR than those in the NC group (P<0.05) throughout the rearing period (0 to 21 d, 22 to 42 d, and 0 to 42 d). Organic acids can improve broilers' performance by inhibiting the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the intestine. In the current study, administration of encapsulated OA in the drinking water of broilers resulted in lower (P<0.05) pH in jejunum when compared to the negative control. Dietary organic acids reduced the pH of different sections of the gastrointestinal tract of broilers compared to those fed the control diet. The administration of 500 g encapsulated or 1000 mL non-encapsulated blend of OA in the current study resulted in a lower count of E. coli compared with the negative control (P<0.05). The count of E. coli was linearly decreased (P<0.05) in the ileum of broilers with graded levels of the non-encapsulated blend of OA. It seems that the gizzard and stomach of birds drink acidified water were more acidic and might decrease the bacteria that were present in the gastrointestinal tract, especially in the lower gastrointestinal tract. Organic acids provide acidic pH in the gut, which increases beneficial bacteria, and decreases harmful bacteria of broilers.
Growth performance and the European production efficiency factor were generally greater with encapsulated OA compared with non-encapsulated one. Results of the current study showed that administration of 500 mg encapsulated blend of OA was sufficient for achieving the desired results.

Antibiotics have been widely used in animal production for decades to promote growth. Although there is a trend toward reducing antibiotics in diets and now in Europe new laws have been passed to ban their use. As a result, economically important diseases such as enteritis necrosis (NE), which is caused by Clostridium perfringens in chickens, have become more prevalent. The alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters could affect gut health and performance by their impact on intestinal microflora. The purpose of this experiment was to compare the efficacy of some feed additives as alternatives to antibiotic for preventing of subclinical necrotic enteritis in broilers.

The study was conducted using 336 one-day-old male broiler chicks in a completely randomized design with 7 treatments, 4 replicates and 12 chicks per replicate. The treatments included: 1) Negative control (NC, corn-soybean meal-based diet without any feed additive); 2) Positive control (PC, diet containing wheat and fish-meal without any feed additive); 3) Antibiotic (PC diet + zinc-bacitracin); 4) Probiotic (PC diet + probiotic); 5) Prebiotic (PC diet + prebiotic); 6) Phytobiotic (PC diet + phytobiotic); and 7) Organic acid (PC diet + organic acids).

The results indicated that addition of antibiotic or its alternatives to the PC diet did not affect average daily feed intake, average daily gain, feed conversion ratio and relative weight of internal organs (p>0.05). Evaluation of cecal bacterial population at d 41 showed that chickens were infected by subclinical necrotic enteritis. The count of Clostridium perfringens was significantly lower in broilers fed either phytobiotic or antibiotic than in broilers recieved either NC or PC treatments. Broilers fed probiotics, prebiotics or organic acid in their diet had lower counts of Clostridium perfringens in cecal contents than those fed PC diet (p<0.05), however the difference was not significant when compared to NC treatment (p>0.05).

According to the sampling results on days 29 and 41, addition of phytobiotic compared to antibiotic, increased the number of lactobacilli while reduced the count of Clostridium perfringens and coliforms. Therefore, phytobiotic can be a suitable alternative for antibiotic to promote gastrointestinal health and prevent subclinical necrotic enteritis in broilers.

The objective of the current research was to investigate the influence of different levels of dietary energy and stocking density on body weight and immune system response in Ross 308 broiler breeder hens. For this purpose, a completely randomized design with 9 treatments included three diet energy levels 2600, 2750 and 2900 ME/Kg and three levels of stocking density (4, 6.5 and 9 birds/m2 in rearing and 3.5, 5.5 and 7.5 birds/m2 in laying period), were used with factorial arrange (3×3) and 4 replicates The results showed that, with increasing dietary energy level, live weight of hens increased significantly from 21 weeks to the end of the experiment (P <0.05), on the other hand, high density from the beginning of the experiment until 31 weeks had no significant effect on live weight of hens, but in the last 10 weeks, higher density caused more weight gain (P<0.04). The percentage of lymphocytes, monocytes, heterophiles and the ratio of heterophiles to lymphocytes did not show a significant difference between the three energy levels. However, the percentage of heterophils, lymphocytes and the ratio of heterophils to lymphocytes were higher in the high-density treatment (P <0.05). There was also no significant difference between the treatments in the observed titers including infectious bursal disease (IBD), bronchitis (IBV), reovirus (REO), Newcastle (ND) and influenza (AI). The results showed that increasing stocking density can cause stress in the herd and if the herd stocking density increases, it is necessary to re-evaluate the energy requirement.

Objective Herbal essential oils are added to the poultry diet for a variety of reasons, such as improving performance, production and increasing the level of immunity. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of fennel and savory essential oils and their mixtures on growth performance, carcass characteristics, antioxidant parameters and hepatic interleukin-6 gene expression in broilers. Materials and methods The study was conducted in a completely randomized design with a 3 × 3 factorial arrangement with 9 treatments and 4 replications, each replication containing 15 birds. (540 Ross 308 broiler chickens). The experimental diets included the levels of 0 g/kg, 0.15 g/kg and 0.25 g/kg of fennel and savory essential oils and their mixture. Feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion ratio were calculated at starter (1-10 days), grower (11-24 days) and finisher (25-42 days). Each repeated three birds were bled at day 42. Interleukin-6 gene expression was performed on day 42. The ileum contents were sampled at 42 days of age to determine the microbial population.   Results The results showed that in the finisher (25-42), the experimental groups that received the essential oil had a lower conversion ratio than the control treatment. Among the experimental groups, the mixture of 0.25 fennel + 0.25 savory essential oils (g/kg feed) had the best production index (p<0.05). The essential oils used reduced the amount of malondialdehyde produced in the broiler drumstick (p<0.05). Herbal compounds increased the lactobacillus and reduced the coliforms and E. coli in the contents of the ileum. All savory supplementated groups except 0.25 (g/kg) + fennel 0.15 (g/kg) increased expression of hepatic interleukin-6 gene.   Conclusions Diets containing 0.25 (g/kg)fennel + 0.25 (g/kg) savory essential oils had the highest effect on improvment of the performance and expression of the broiler liver gene.

The experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of aluminum silicate (AS), humic acid (HA), Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell wall (SC), herbal powder (HP) and a commercial toxin binder to alleviate the effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in broiler diet.  In this experiment we used 320 day old chicks in a completely randomized design with 8 treatments and 4 replications, and 10 birds in each replicate, from 7 to 28 days of age. Experimental treatments were: 1) negative control (NC; without AFB1), 2) positive control (PC; contaminated by 0.3 mg AFB1 / kg diet), 3) PC + AS, 4) PC + AS + HA, 5) PC + AS + SC, 6) PC + AS + HA + SC, 7) PC + Magnotox as a commercial binder and 8) PC + HP. Feeding AFB1 contaminated diet reduced broiler performance, increased relative weights of liver, heart, pancreas and reduced serum albumin, total protein and glucose concentrations (P <0.05). Inclusion of AS in PC diet individually improved the negative effects of AFB1. However, supplementation of SC boosted AS effects, HA supplementation was rarely effective. Finally, it can be concluded that the combination of AS + SC has the highest adsorbing ability of AFB1.

This experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of different inclusion levels of free and microencapsulated essential oil of Ajowan (EOA) herb in broilers diet on growth performance and some ileal bacteria population. A total of 320 one-day-old chicks were distributed in a completely randomized design with 2×4 factorial arrangement. The dietary factors were 2 different forms of EOA (free and encapsulated) and 4 dietary inclusion levels of EOA (0, 50, 100 and 150 mg/kg). Growth performance parameters were recorded throughout the experiment, and intestinal organs weight and ileal microbial population were measured on 42 day of age. Broilers fed encapsulated EOA in diet had higher body weight gain and lower feed conversion ratio during 1 to 21 day of age than those fed free EOA (P<0.05). Higher relative weight of liver (% of live weight) was achieved in broilers fed diets supplemented with encapsulated EOA (P<0.05). There was a significant interaction between the form and dietary levels of EOA on E. coli count (P<0.05). As a general conclusion, use of encapsulated EOA led to an improvement in body weight gain, FCR, and European Production Index, in the first three weeks of growth and in the whole period of growth phase, respectively.

This research was conducted to evaluate the effects of different levels of nucleotide supplementation on growth performance and immune responses of broiler chickens. An experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design using 300 day-old male chicks, were divided into five treatments with five replicates and 12 chicks in each replicate. The treatments consisted of the basal diet without additives (control), the basal ration + 500 g/ton of probiotic CloSTAT, basal diet + 400, 500 and 600 g/ton enriched nucleotide supplement, respectively. Daily feed intake, daily body weight gain and feed conversion ratio were measured at the end of each period. Humoral and cellular immunities were evaluated by intramuscular injection of sheep red blood cell (SRBC) and intradermal injection of phytohemagglutinin-P (PHA-P) in wing, respectively. The results indicated that all levels of the nucleotide reduced the daily feed intake (89.7, 83.3 and 79.4 vs. 98.2 g, respectively) and improved feed conversion ratio (1.67, 1.62 and 1.62 vs. 1.93, respectively; P<0.05).  On day 28, probiotic CloSTAT and 400 and 500 g/ton of nucleotide had higher levels of total anti-SRBC (5.20, 6.60 and 6.90 vs. 3.20) and IgM (2.60, 3.20 and 2.20 vs. 0.90; P<0.05). On day 35, the treatments of 400 and 500 g/ton nucleotide have higher total anti-SRBC (6.60 and 6.10 vs. 3.80 and 4.50), IgG (3.50 and 3.30 vs. 2.10 and 2.50) and IgM (3.10 and 2.80 vs. 1.70 and 2.00) than the control group and probiotic CloSTAT (P<0.05).  Cell immunity in response to PHA-P injection was not affected by treatment groups (P>0.05). It is concluded that consumption of 400 and 500 g/ton enriched nucleotide supplement in the diet has beneficial effects on performance and immune responses of broiler chicks.

The application of phytogenic additives in the form of essential oils have attracted considerable attention in poultry industry. An experiment was conducted to evaluate effects of the blends of essential oils (EO) isolated from some medicinal plants including savory, thyme, fennel and rosemary on performance, blood metabolites, intestinal microflora, and meat quality of broilers. Two hundred 1-day-old broilers were randomly allocated to 5 treatments with 4 replicates of 10 chicks. The dietary treatments included 1) NC (negative control; without EO), 2) PC (positive control; 300 mg commercial EO of oregano/kg diet), 3) SR (300 mg EOs of savory and rosemary/kg diet), 4) SRT (300 mg EOs of savory, rosemary and thyme/kg diet), 5) SRTF (300 mg EOs of savory, rosemary, thyme and fennel/kg diet). Neither PC nor combinations of EOs affected growth performance of broilers. Serum cholesterol reduced (P<0.05) by feeding the blend of EOs compared with NC. The lowest ileal Lactobacillus counts were observed in chicks fed diets supplemented with EO of oregano or SR (P<0.05). Dietary supplementation of oregano EO decreased (P<0.05) lipid peroxidation of thigh meat after 30 and 60 days of frozen storage compared with NC group. Broilers fed diets supplemented with EOs of oregano or SR had the lowest ileal Lactobacillus spp. counts probably due to their large amount of carvacrol contents which suppress growth and proliferation of Gram-positive bacteria. Contrary to blended EOs, oregano EO did not reduce serum cholesterol concentration, suggesting hypocholesterolemic effect of other compounds except carvacrol in EOs. The highest stability to meat oxidation was achieved in oregano EOs-fed broilers. This antioxidative effect was lower in treatments with less carvacrol contents

Japanese quail is considered as a beneficial bird because of its characteristics such as rapid growth, early maturity, high egg production, breeding times and short incubation period (Lotfipour and Shakeri, 2011). Additives such as probiotics and prebiotics are used as alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters today (Zare Shahneh et al. 2007). Primalac is a kind of commercial probiotics that contains Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium thermophilum, and Enterococcus faecium (Salehimanesh et al. 2016). Its characteristics include increasing the population of the gastrointestinal tract microbes, increasing livestock production, reducing drug use, reducing mortality and reducing diarrhea in the flock (Midilli et al. 2008). Fermacto (kind of commercial prebiotics) is the product of elemental fermentation of Aspergillus oryzae. Fermacto have effects of increasing the flock's uniformity, reducing the passage of foodstuffs, eliminating the competitive challenge, developing intestinal villi, increasing energy and protein absorption, increasing the absorption and storage of minerals especially calcium and phosphorus, enhancing the immune system, and improving weight gain on time of stress (Ghahri et al. 2013). An experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design using 400 day-old quail chicks (mixed sex) with four treatments, five replicates, and 20 quail chicks in each replicate from 1 to 42 days of age. Experimental treatments were included: (1) control group (basal diet without any feed additive), (2) basal diet contains 0.9 g/kg Primalac, (3) basal diet contains 2 g/kg Fermacto and (4) basal diet contains 0.9 g/kg Primalac + 2 g/kg Fermacto. Diets were formulated to meet or exceed the nutritional requirements of Japanese quail as indicated in the standard tables (NRC, 1994). Quails in each replicate were weighed weekly and feed intake was determined at the end of each week. From these data, average daily weight gain, average daily feed intake and feed conversion ratio were calculated. On day 42 of experiment, two birds (one male and one female) from each replicate were selected, then weighed, were slaughtered and carcass yield and carcass components including breast, thighs, wings, abdominal fat, fat around neck, and bursa of Fabricius were weighed using a digital scale and their relative weight to body weight were calculated. The length of the various parts of the small intestine, including the duodenum, jejunum and ileum, was measured after the separation from the mesenteric with the ruler. To study the blood metabolites, blood samples were taken from the wing vein of two quails in each replicate (one male and one female) on day 42 and then, sera were separated to measure triglycerides, cholesterol, HDL, and LDL using enzymatic kits via colorimetric method. To determine ileal microbial population of quails, after opening the abdominal cavity, ileum region, between Meckel’s diverticulum and ileocecal junction, separated by a sterilized scissor, about two centimeters of the ileum were transferred into sterile microtubes and were stored at -20 ̊C until studying E.coli, lactobacillus and coliform microbial populations (Roostaei-Ali Mehr et al. 2014). Eosin methylene blue agar medium (Merck, Germany) was used to culture E.coli. MacConkey agar (Merck,
Germany) and MRS (Merck, Germany) were used to cultivate coliforms and Lactobacillus, respectively. The results indicated that 0.9 g/kg probiotic Primalac, 2 g/kg prebiotic Fermacto, and 0.9 g/kg probiotic Primalac + 2 g/kg prebiotic Fermacto in diet had no significant effect on daily feed intake, daily weight gain, and feed conversion ratio (P>0.05). It was reported that the use of probiotic (Primalac) to the diet of Japanese quail had no effect on daily weight gain and daily feed intake (Rezaeipour et al. 2015). Several factors can affect the consumption of bird feed, including the physiological and nutritional factors, health and the rate of production and type of bird (Blair, 2008). The results indicated that treatments did not affected on weight of carcass and internal organs (P>0.05; Table 3). It was reported that using probiotic to the diet of Japanese quail had no effect on weight of carcass and carcass traits (Sahin et al. 2011). It was reported that addition of probiotic (Primalac) and prebiotic (Fermacto) to the diet of broilers did not have any effect on growth performance and carcass quality, carcass weight, carcass traits, breast, heart, abdominal fat, spleen, and bursa of Fabricius (Shirmohammad et al. 2015). Treatments had no significant effect on relative length of the small intestine segments (duodenum, jejunum and ileum) (P>0.05). Shirmohammad et al. (2015) reported that intestinal traits of broilers were not affected by Primalac and Fermacto. Since the most important feature of probiotics is their ability to settle in the gastrointestinal tract, native microbial strains of gastrointestinal tract are usually prepared as probiotics, so probiotics produced for broilers may not be suitable for establishment or proliferation in the Japanese quail digestive system. Treatments had no significant effect on triglyceride, cholesterol, HDL, and LDL (P>0.05). It is reported that the supplementation of the Japanese quail diet with Primalac did not have any effect on serum triglycerides, cholesterol, LDL, and HDL of broilers (Rezaeipour et al. 2015). Sahin et al. (2008) reported that cholesterol, triglyceride and glucose levels were not affected by experimental treatments when using synbiotic (Saccharomyces cerevisiae + mannan oligosaccharide) in Japanese quail diets. The levels of serum cholesterol and triglycerides in birds affected by diet and other factors such as age, sex, and environmental conditions (Haddadin et al. 1996). Non-significant changes for intestinal microflora were observed (P>0.05; Table 6). Researchers reported that the consumption of probiotic (Protexin) in the diet of quail did not have any significant effect on bacterial populations (Nasehi et al. 2015). When using feed additives, consideration of points such as rate of consumption, temperature, humidity, water consumption and environmental health are necessary (Chiang and Hsieh, 1995). It could be concluded that 0.9 g/kg probiotic (Primalac), 2 g/kg prebiotic (Fermecto) and synbiotic (0.9 g/kg probiotic Primalac + 2 g/kg prebiotic Fermecto) had not any positive effect on growth performance, carcass traits, length of small intestine, serum lipids as well as the number of Lactobacillus bacteria, coliforms, and E.coli in Japanese quail.

An experiment was carried out with 140 Arian broiler breeder hens and 20 males at 26 weeks of age. This experiment was done in 2×2 factorial arrangement in a completely randomized design with 20 experimental units and lasted 40 weeks. Dietary treatments were formulated with 2 levels of energy including 2740 and 2540 Kcal/Kg and two level of digestible lysine (0.54 and 0.61 %). Dietary energy level had no significant effect on egg production, egg weight and feed conversion ratio, but hens were received lower energy level had a lower daily weight gain compare to the hens received high energy level (p

Effect of different levels of date waste were studied on performance and immune responses of 240 Ross 308 broiler chicks in a completely randomized design with 5 treatments and 4 replicates and 12 birds in each replicate. The whole date waste were analyzed for chemical compositions and gradual levels of 0 (control), 5, 10, 15 and 20 percent of that were included into the diets which fed broilers for 42 days. Growth performance was recorded, weekly. Humoral immune response was evaluated by intramuscular injection of 0.1 ml sheep red blood cell (SRBC) 25 percent suspension on days 8 and 22 of age and serum antibody levels produced in response to SRBC was measured on days 21, 28, 35 and 42. Cellular immune response was assessed by intradermal injection of phytohemaglutinin on day 16. Using date waste in diet had no significant effect on daily feed intake. Daily weight gain was linearly decreased by increasing the levels of dates waste in diet (P

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of thyme extract (TE) and dietary fat on performance and carcass antioxidant properties of Ross 308 broiler chicks (male/female ratio of 50/50). The used experimental design was a completely randomized design with six dietary treatments each replicated 4 times with 10 birds per replicate. Feed intake (FI) and body weight gain (BWG) of the chicks were recorded at the end of starter, grower and finisher periods. These records were used to calculate feed conversion ratio (FCR). The susceptibility to lipid oxidation of thigh muscles from two slaughtered chicks (on day 42) was determined during 45 and 90 days of refrigerated storage (-20 °C) using thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay. Chicks fed diets supplemented with fat had higher BWG and FI, and lower FCR compared to diets without fat (P0.05). As an overall conclusion, adding TE and SO to the diets of broiler chicks for the entire experimental period led to improved growth rate in SO supplemented birds and increased oxidative stability of meat in birds supplemented with TE.

In this study the effect of microencapsulation of thyme and cinnamon essential oils on performance, some blood parameters and carcass characteristics of broiler chicks were investigated. For this purpose 320 male broiler chicks from 308 strain in four treatments and 4 replications in a completely random design were tested for a period of 42 days. The treatments included basal diet橻扮⨭, basal diet, basal diet纷 thyme essential oil , basal diet 騧⮡檛⺕ꭞ thyme essential oil, , basal diet纷 cinnamon essential oil, basal diet 騧⮡檛⺕ꭞ cinnamon essential oil, basal diet纷 thyme and cinnamon essential oils, basal diet 騧⮡檛⺕ꭞ thyme and cinnamon essential oils. Results the study showed that the treatments had no significant effect on performance traits consist of feed intake, body weight gain and feed coefficient rate (P> 0.05).The result of blood parameters showed that adding essential oil to diet, significantly reduced cholesterol concentration. Adding free cinnamon significantly increased HDL concentration and the treatment include microencapsulated thyme and cinnamon had the most glutathione peroxides enzyme activity (P

Experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of green husk of walnut powder on immune responses, by using 200 broilers. Birds were split into five groups and each group into four sub groups which include 10 birds. The levels of zero, 1, 2, 3 and 4 % powder of green husk of walnut were added to diet of each group. Intramuscular injection of 0.1 mL of the 25% SRBC suspension was performed at 8 and 22 d and the titers of IgG and IgM was determined by haemagglutination test at 21, 28, 35 and 42 d. Blood samples were collected to determine count of red and white blood cells and after that birds were slaughter to evaluate weight of visceral fat and organelles at 42 d. Titer IgM was higher in treated birds with 4 % green husk (2.93) than control (2.12) at 21 d (P

Medicinal plants can be used as a natural non-antibiotic growth promoters in broilers (Mohiti-Asli et al. 2010). Herbs and medicinal plants could have various advantages including simple usage, lack of negative side effects on animal performance and without harmful residue in animal products (Shokoohmand 2008). Garden cress (Lepidium sativum) belongs to umbelliferous and has medicinal properties which reduce blood triglycerides and cholesterol. This herb contains sterols, saponins, glycosinolate, sulfur-containing glycosides, indole, terpenoids, isothiocyanate and secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds including tannins and flavonoids (Dannehl et al. 2012). Research has shown garden cress increased HDL-cholesterol and decreased LDL-cholesterol in serum of mice and humans (Chauhan et al. 2012; Moghimi 1982), reduced cholesterol concentration and LDL and VLDL-cholesterol in serum of rabbit (Salih 1994; Lathaa, et al. 2011). Supplementation of garden cress to laying hens diet improved feed conversion ratio and egg production (Al-Taee 2013).
Material and An experiment was conducted as a completely randomized design using 280 day-old quail chicks (mixed sex) with 5 treatments, 4 replicates and 14 quail chicks in each replicate from 1 to 42 days. The experimental treatments were included control (without extract) and levels of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 ml of garden cress (Lepidium sativum) seed extract per one liter of drinking water. Diet were formulated to meet or exceed the nutritional requirements of Japanese quail as indicated in standard tables (NRC, 1994). Quails in each replicate were weighed by week and feed intake was determined at the end of each week. From these data, average daily weight gain, average daily feed intake and feed conversion ratio were calculated. On day 42 of experiment, two birds (one male and one female) from each replicate were selected then weighed, were killed and carcass yield and carcass components including breast, thighs, wings, abdominal fat, fat around neck, and bursa of Fabricius were weighed using a digital scale and their relative weight to body weight were calculated. To determine ileal microbial population of quails, after opening the abdominal cavity, ileum region between Meckel’s diverticulum and ileocecal junction separated by a sterilized scissor, about two cm of the ileum were transferred into sterile microtubes and were stored at -20 C until study E. coli, lactobacillus and coliform microbial populations (Roostaei-Ali Mehr et al. 2014). Eosin methylene blue agar medium (Merck, Germany) was used to culture E. coli, for the cultivation of coliforms from the MacConkey agar (Merck, Germany) and lactobacillus cultures from the MRS (Merck, Germany) were used. To study the blood metabolites, on day 42, blood samples were taken from wing vein of two quails from each replicate (one male and one female) and then sera were separated to measure cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL- and LDL-cholesterol using enzymatic kits via colorimetric method.
In this study, using garden cress seed extract in drinking water had not any significant effect on feed intake, daily weight gain and feed efficiency of Japanese quail (P>0.05; Table 2). It is reported that 1 and 2 % inclusion rate of garden cress in broiler diets had no significant effect on feed intake (Al-Taee 2013; Salih 1994). Several factors influence on feed intake such as physical characteristics, viscosity, saliva production, the nutritional value of feed, feed particle size depends on the interaction between components (Blair 2008). The results showed that carcass and carcass components except thighs were not affected by any treatments at 42 day of age (Table 3). Researchers reported that supplementation of fennel seeds in broiler diets did not affect carcass characteristics and weights of liver, spleen, exchange, heart and abdominal fat (Soltan et al. 2008). Similarly, adding mint to broiler diets did not affect the relative weights of organs (Ocak et al. 2008). The results of relative length of different parts of small intestine at day 42 showed that consumption of garden cress seed extract via drinking water had a significant impact on the relative length of the intestinal segments (Table 4). It has been reported that the addition of mint essential oil in broiler diets, the weight of the small intestine and colon were not affected (Hernandez 2004). Results of a study on the effects of mint, thyme and chicory herbs in diets on jejunum and ileum histology of broiler chickens showed no significant effect on villi length, crypt depth, and villi length to crypt depth ratio (Poursina et al. 2014). Any levels of garden cress extract had significant effect on the population of E. coli and coliforms in ileum (P>0.05). However, the number of Lactobacillus affected by different treatments (P0.05). It has been reported that using the cress seed essential oil in mice reduced blood triglycerides, however did not affect HDL-cholesterol (Diwakar et al. 2010). Using garden cress leaves in amount 50 grams per day in humans can reduce LDL-cholesterol and triglyceride is (Moghimi 1982). Reasons for lack of effect of the cress seed extract on lipid quail can related to type of extract, form of use, animal species or insufficient dose of it.
The results of this study showed that the use of garden cress seed hydro-alcoholic extract had not any significant effect on performance (daily feed intake, daily weight gain and FCR), carcass traits, intestinal length and serum lipids of Japanese quail. Effect of cress seed hydro-alcoholic extract on E.coli and coliform bacteria was not significant, however supplementation of 0.5, 1 and 1.5 ml of the extract in Japanese quail increased intestinal lactobacilli count.

The effects of garlic (Allium sativum) aqueous extract in drinking water were studied on performance, blood lipids and intestinal microflora using 280 Japanese quails in a completely randomized design with 5 treatments, 4 replicates and 14 birds per replicate. The treatments included 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5 and 2 mL garlic aqueous extract per litre of drinking water, respectively. On day 42, two birds per replicate were randomly selected and after sampling from ileum for determining the microflora populations, their carcasses were decomposed. Blood samples were collected on day 42 (one male and one female) and after separating the serum, triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL and LDL were measured. The results indicated that consumption of garlic aqueous extract in drinking water had no significant effect on feed intake, daily gain, feed conversion ratio, weight of carcass, internal organs (P>0.05). Treatments had no significant effect on relative length of the small intestine segments including duodenum, jejunum and ileum, and serum lipids (P>0.05). The different levels of garlic extract had no effect on Lactodacillus and Coliform populations of ileum segment. Number of E.coli colony (CFU/g)in quails that received 2 mL extract (5.83) was lower (P

This experiment was conducted to determine the effects of sodium bentonite litter supplement and stoking density on performance and litter quality using a total of 252 broiler chicks in completely randomized design with 6 treatments which were arranged factorially (3×2) and 4 replicates. Experimental factors included: stocking density (14; low and 18; high /birds per m2) and three levels of sodium bentonite litter supplement (0, 2 and 4 kg/m2). Higher stocking density led to lower performance, higher moisture, pH, count of E.coli and oocysts in litter, intestinal lesions score, footpad and hock lesion scores and breast blister (P

This experiment was conducted using 240 one-day-old broiler chicks (Ross 308 strain) in a completely randomized design with 6 dietary treatments, each replicated 4 times with 10 birds/replicate. The dietary treatments were: 1, 2- diets without thyme extract (TE) with and without fat for the entire period of the experiment, 3, 4- diets with 0.5% TE with and without fat for the entire period of the experiment, and 5, 6- diets with 0.5% TE in last two weeks with and without fat. Weight gain (WG), feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR)) of chicks were measured as weekly basis. At day 42, two chicks were selected from each pen and slaughtered for microfloracount and thigh meat cholesterol measurement. Chicks fed diets supplemented with fat had higher body WG and FI, and lower FCR compared to diets without fat (P 0.05). As an overall conclusion, adding TE to the diets during the entire rearing period of the experimentled to significant reduction in thigh meat cholesterol in boiler chickens.