محسن جاهد

Determining the reason for legislating worships and their role in other human affairs provides the opportunity for perceptions such as the intrinsic purpose, negative dignity or positive and preparatory dignity of worships. The present research is trying to answer this question that in the eyes of Sadr al-Mutalahin Shirazi, what is the status of worship in the origin, evolution or emergence of human conditions and knowledge? The purpose of this research is to discover the functions of worship in this process, which is followed by descriptive-analytical method. Sadra considers the rulings to be subject to the criteria of self-determination and considers the purpose of legislating rulings to be to provide general benefit and general expediency to humans. Based on the findings of this research, in explaining the relationship between actions, circumstances and knowledge, the existence of real criteria for worship should be accepted and focused on the interaction between human affairs and the process of the two ascending and descending arcs of the voluntary course of man. According to Sadra, the aforementioned three authorities have a bilateral and multilateral relationship, and discovering this relationship is possible through understanding the interactive movement between the soul and the body and explaining the collective reality of human beings. Paying attention to the interactive relationship and the positive-preparatory interaction between the soul and the body, and the concession and escalation of the citizen of the two, shows that actions in the arc of ascent have non-existent, preparatory and preliminary status, and in the arc of descent, they have existential and fruitful status.

In Augustine's thought, human nature is sick because of original sin, and this disease has also made humans incapable of achieving salvation and doing good deeds. Hence, it needs an external factor to be strengthened: grace. The result of Augustine's belief is that babies are guilty of physical birth in such a situation. In the meantime, Pelagius believes that Augustine's approach has results that undermine the tenets of Christian doctrinal principles. First, it deprives God of the attributes of justice and power, while the Bible considers God to be just because the Bible considers God to be Just and seeks a conception of man as a just creature. Secondly, It causes an unfair interpretation of Divine Grace that challenges other inner areas of human beings and reduces them to inefficiency. Therefore, to solve this problem, Pelagius first considers the human will to be free, and in the next step, he introduces human nature as pure and explains it with an Arian approach; he first explains grace and then confronts Augustine's interpretation of Paul. He also considers Augustine's evidence from the Bible metaphorical, thus declaring the infants free from any sin. In this study, we intend to investigate this issue descriptively and refer to original sources.

The problem of perception as the basis of knowledge holds a particular status in Islamic philosophy. By employing his own philosophical principles, Mullā Ṣadrā has provided a different philosophical explanation of perception that can be called the doctrine of emanation in contrast to the doctrine of immanence. According to the doctrine of emanation, the soul creates the perceptive forms with its creating power, the aid of supreme principles, and the preparation of external cause. This doctrine enjoys a greater explanatory ability in comparison to other common doctrines; however, it suffers from certain ambiguities that demand more clarification and investigation. Mullā Ṣadrā has not referred to the quality of the actualization of preparations; however, in line with the explanation of the process of emanation and based on the centrality of influential elements in this process (preparation of external things, contribution of supreme principles, similarity, and conformity), it seems that one can provide an acceptable explanation and justification based on the findings of modern cognitive sciences. It is as if Mullā Ṣadrā has deliberately and consciously considered the existence of external objects to be merely an introduction to perception and nothing more. Concerning the quality of the effects of supreme principles in perception, it must be said that the attribution of the emanation of forms to the supreme principles as a distant agent has no contradiction with attributing the creation of these forms to the soul as the close agent. Regarding the quality of the relationship between the created and external forms, Mullā Ṣadrā speaks of their similarity. Nevertheless, it seems that his doctrine has not been much successful in the explanation and justification of the true and one-to-one correspondence between these forms and can merely reveal a superficial match between them.

The structure of Augustine's theological system seeks to solve the problem of human salvation. From the ontological and epistemological point of view, Augustine considers elements involved in the realization of human salvation, among which the most important elements are the Holy Spirit. It seems that according to Augustine's theological system, the Holy Spirit plays a role in human salvation in three areas: a- introducing Christ to others; B- Birth of faith in the hearts of believers; C- Partial realization of the grounds for the formation of moral virtues in believers. The Holy Spirit plays a key role for human salvation in these three areas, especially in the realization of moral virtues. Although Augustine has talked and reflected a lot about the Holy Spirit and his functions in the system of existence, he did not pay attention to this position in the design of his system and did not reflect it in the formulation of human salvation, which itself causes defects. He becomes human in the realization of salvation. Therefore, the current study tries to analyze and examine the place of the Holy Spirit in the salvation system by referring directly to Augustine's works and with an analytical-descriptive approach.

The concept of "happiness" has consistently garnered the attention of various philosophical and ethical systems. In his work, A History of Happiness, Nicholas White critically examines the historical trajectory of this concept while presenting the differing criteria employed by philosophers to define happiness. Ultimately, he concludes that happiness does not serve as an effective guide for applying diverse desires and goals. Notably, White does not explore the notion of happiness in the works of Islamic philosophers, such as Mulla Sadra. Given that Mulla Sadra's perspective on happiness and a flourishing life is grounded in his unique philosophical principles, the authors of this article aim to evaluate White's critique of conventional standards of happiness through the lens of Mulla Sadra's existential framework. This evaluation seeks to address whether the essence of happiness is clearly articulated within Sadra's philosophy or if the criticisms directed at other happiness theories, as interpreted by White, are equally applicable to Sadra's theory. Employing a descriptive-analytical methodology, this article elucidates Mulla Sadra's understanding of happiness and its efficacy about the criteria established by other philosophers. The research findings indicate that considering the various existential levels and capacities of human beings, a degree of happiness is attainable for all.

Human salvation and redemption are among the most important topics that Islamic philosophers have addressed. Mulla Sadra, as a philosopher who is based on the religious and intellectual tradition of Shia, is looking for how to realize the salvation of man in the theological and philosophical system that he designs in the book of the Al Asfar AlArbaa. According to the studies done, we see that Mulla Sadra believes that the salvation of man depends on two components, which are: angels and the Prophet of Islam. This approach of Mulla Sadra leads to the conclusion that angels, according to their ontological and epistemological position in both scientific and practical fields, provide the two main wings of human salvation and identify the redeemed human identity and make man an angelic being. They make a change. At the same time, in the field of practical wing, we are faced with the two elements of transmission of revelation and general assistance to humans, which the role of the Prophet of Islam in the field of revelation is very visible and effective. According to Mulla Sadra, angels are in charge of creating a human identity, and salvation is the realization of the believer's scientific and practical perfection, which is achieved by connecting and uniting with the active intellect and practicing the Sharia. In this research, in an analytical-descriptive way and based on Mulla Sadra's works, we investigate the issue of what is the role of angels in the salvation of man in Mulla Sadra's thought and how is it achieved.

The issue of death is one of the most important issues of human existence and one of his existential concerns. From birth to death, humans always carry the anxiety of death with them. Many thinkers have proposed solutions to reduce death anxiety. Yalom and Mulla Sadra have also discussed the nature of death based on their foundations. Yalom considers death as a pure nothingness and based on a naturalistic approach presents some existential solutions like relying on human communication, creativity, and rippling. Mulla Sadra based on a supernaturalistic approach also considers death as an existentiale. By analyzing his philosophical foundations some solutions like having a transformational and procedural approach to death could be deduced from his philosophy for reducing the anxiety of death. In this research, the authors first compare the views of these two thinkers and then try to find an integrated solution to reducing death anxiety.

Among the various confrontations with the theory of evolution, there are evolutionist theologians who try to introduce theism and evolution together. John F. Haught -the theologian who believes in evolution- considers theology to be a supporter of the theory of evolution and by criticizing traditional theology, he believes that theology must be updated with science, because otherwise it will be eliminated. In order to plan the coordination and close connection between theology and evolution, Haught presents the theory of "Metaphysics of The Future ", according to which evolution is not only approved by theology, but the only correct explanation that can be given from evolution is the theology oriented to "Metaphysics of The Future". This research examines John F. Haught's criticisms of the philosophical foundations of evolutionist atheists as well as his proposed metaphysics. Haught's most important criticisms of atheists can be seen as criticism of their naturalism, explanatory monism, and scientism, and as well as ignoring the place of "belief" in the foundation of their beliefs. On the other hand, Haught's approaches can also be fundamentally criticized from the point of view of metaphysics on religion, stonewalling on the path of reductionism, unconditional acceptance of Occam's razor rule, hermeneuticism and flawed and disappointing theology.

Anthropology in psychology under the title of "personality theories" has been able to be effective in the field of behavioral studies and interpersonal relationships. The need to explain and analyze the true nature of man in the field of "being" - contrary to psychological personality theories that generally identify human nature in the field of "appearance" - caused this article based on Sadra's anthropological opinions and view According to Allport's trait theory, which is one of the pioneers of the trait approach, it should be organized by descriptive-analytical method. The individualistic approach based on traits is the main feature of Allport's and Mulla Sadra's personality theory. The foundation of personality in both theories is based on the most profound characteristics of person; However, in the analysis of Mulla Sadra's philosophical texts, the quality of the appearance of these traits and why they influence the structure of personality and, accordingly, human behavior, have been explained. "Self" or ego, contrary to its abstract concept in Alport's view, is a real and existential thing in Sadrai's system. The dynamism and unity of Alporti's personality can be rationally explained by the rule of "unity of the known and the known" and "intrinsic volitional movement".

In Islamic texts, humor is sometimes considered a reprehensible and sometimes a virtue, and sometimes it is recommended to use this act “less often”. The problem is, how can these narrations be compatible with each other and what reasonable explanation can be given of these texts. The answer lies in practical wisdom. If creating humor is to be considered a virtue, it is necessary for the person creating it- relying on practical wisdom which is a kind of situational art and insight- to be evaluate whether this act in this particular situation is for happiness and a good life of the people related to this humor is useful or not. Practical wisdom requires a kind of knowledge and insight into the whole world and human’s relationship with it, as well as a correct understanding of human happiness. Therefore, it is difficult to form and establish the virtue of practical wisdom in people, and after a lot of practice and passage of many years, it is formed in moral actors, and it is never formed in many people. It is for this reason that performing a moral act such as creating humor by many people may be condemned as a vice, and for this reason, in Islamic traditions, this action is recommended to happen “rarely”.

The present study investigates Mullā Ṣadrā’s strategies for treating death anxiety and its philosophical foundations. It also aims to suggest some philosophical and ontological strategies to decrease modern Man’s anxiety when thinking about death based on some of Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophical principles, such as the principiality of existence, the union of the intellect with intelligible, the trans-substantial motion, theism, religiosity, and believing in the Hereafter. According to Sadrian philosophy, Man’s life is meaningful and purposeful, and being has been created based on divine emanation. The human soul is corporeally-originated; however, its essence changes because of its union with the intelligible and its own trans-substantial motion and attains higher levels of being though going through different existential grades. This developmental move continues until reaching the origin of being and does not end with death. It also grants meaning to Man’s life and decreases their death anxiety. Mullā Ṣadrā is an existential philosopher who advocates a supernaturalist, theistic, and procedural approach to death. The reality of death in Mullā Ṣadrā’s philosophy is a part of Man’s process of existential development. Some of the strategies that can be inferred from his philosophy to reduce death anxiety include following a teleological approach to the world, being’s view of God as pure connection, believing in the Hereafter and Man’s resurrection after corporeal death, advocating ontological evolution, and having a developmental view of death.

There are many hadiths in Shia and Sunni Hadiths books about the reward of deeds (Savab’ol Aa’mal). The repetition and multiplicity of these hadiths in these books is one of the reasons that make it difficult to ignore this hadiths. The general method of hadith scholars in dealing with these hadiths is to use the Man Balgh rule, based on which, despite the weakness of the chain of transmission, these hadiths are accepted with a tolerant attitude. While the study and accuracy in the content of these hadiths shows the obvious contradictions in them. In the current research, it is suggested to use new linguistic approaches and pay attention to different capacities of language to solve the problem of conflicts. In this approach, the meaning in Savab’ol Aa’mal hadiths can be justified based on the perspective of speech act theory, in such a way that these hadiths are meaningful by creating an effective action in the audience, and if they cannot create the intended effective action based on the intellectual and belief system of the audience, It is considered to have a semantic disorder. The relative advantage of this strategy, in addition to the wideness of the meaningful range, is that, in this method, expressions can be measured and evaluated without necessarily going through the path of truth or falsity.

Mulla Sadra considers humans to be a single species in the ecstasy of the world, and at the same time, he introduces human beings as multiple and different internally. His interpretation of multiplicity is something which is in change moment-by-moment. This duality in relation to unity has created the suspicion eclecticism in his views and has made the disentanglement of duality difficult. He accepts the criteria through which theologian come up with a new species and considers the speech capability of human beings as a criterion for considering all human beings belonging to the same species; however, relying on his theory of substantial motion, he sees human beings as becoming new moment-by-moment. This ambiguity, which can be attributed to the lack of formation of science of logic based on transcendental theology, has make it difficult to clarify the criterion based on Mulla Sadra’s point of view. The present study is concerned with the duality of unity and multiplicity of the human species, and the goal is to resolve the duality. However, the conclusion is that, although the idea of plurality of human species has a clear framework originated from transcendental theology, it is not easy to integrate this idea with the emphasis that Milla Sadra has made on the unity of human species in the ecstasy of the world.

Despite the serious attention of Western philosophers to the language of religion, which occurred after the linguistic turn, among the topics of Islamic theology, independent research has not been formed around the linguistic model of Islamic rational theology. However, the linguistic model used by theologians is a determining factor in explaining, proving and extracting theological issues and problems.In fact, the imaginary and affirmative bases of the theologist about language, meaning, truth, certainty and such things determine the type of him encounter with the text. The main issue of the present study is dedicated to this issue. In a general division, linguistic models are divided into traditional and modern categories. According to the historical evidence and proofs in Islamic theology, the linguistic model of Islamic theology is more in line with the traditional linguistic model.The traditional linguistic model, despite its comparative advantage over a period in the history of theology, is unable to explain many theological issues.

Analyzing and studying the relation of science and religion were always the most important philosophical and theological concerns. One of the researchers that paid attention to this problem in detail, is Michael Ruse. He suggests that the entity of science in essence, is metaphoric, and since metaphor is limited, so science is limited, and some issues are not problems for scientist need to be answered. He provided a list of this kind of issues, as follows: origin of the creatures, foundations of morality, the nature of conscience, and the meaning of life. So there is a room for other fields to answer these questions. Therefore, Ruse calls himself adherent to independence position. The weakness of Ruse position is that he claims that the issues are now in the domain of religion, in the future fall under the science; while the authors believe in: first, the most of these four issues in list above, couldn’t fall under the science, because of selectiveness of science, non-evaluativeness, and the dominance of machine metaphor. So these issues will be under the religion. Second, according to that the language of science is metaphoric, we must accept the complementary position, rather than independence.

There are two main approaches to evolutionary epistemology: the analogical or Spencerian approach, and the literal or Darwinian approach. The analogical approach claims that the process of the development of culture – particularly the development of science – is purely like that of living creatures and is based on natural selection. Michael Ruse calls this approach the “traditional approach” or the “analogical approach”, and sometimes calls it the “Spencerian approach.” In the latter approach, which this essay is going to consider from the viewpoint of Michael Ruse, the claim is that not only the development and evolution of animal bodies but also the development of the structures of their mind is a product of natural selection. The proponents of these approaches are divided into two groups: first, theorists like Lorenz, Reidl, and Wuketits, who believe that evolutionary epistemology is complementary to the critical philosophy of Kant. Second, theorists like Clark link evolutionary epistemology to Humean skepticism. Ruse, like Clark, believes that evolutionary epistemology is complementary to Humean philosophy and that the human mind isn’t a blank slate, but it is provided with innate capacities or secondary epigenetic rules. So, Ruse like Quine, believes that there isn’t any difference between analytic and synthetic propositions and that they all are synthetic propositions and posteriori. The difference is that Quine appeals to philosophical reasons, and Ruse appeals to biological ones. Moreover, there isn’t any necessity in knowledge according to Quine but rather, a pragmatic necessity; while Ruse believes that there is a type of necessity, that is, according to the present framework of our minds, based on our evolutionary history, we are condemned to think causally and mathematically, but we may lose this framework in the evolutionary process. It seems that Ruse’s viewpoint corresponds more with our common sense than that of Quine because we always put up resistance against those who believe that the principles of mathematics and logic are contingent. The viewpoint of Ruse was criticized, and he responds to his critics. We believe that some of his answers aren’t plausible.One of the most important criticisms against Ruse’s evolutionary epistemology is that it is self-contradictory, that is, what is important for evolutionary epistemologists is success in survival and reproduction, and the truth doesn’t matter to him, so he should accept that we need to believe that the principles of evolution itself can possibly be false. Ruse, responds to this criticism by distinguishing between the reality of common sense and metaphysical reality.We show in this essay that this solution doesn’t work because Ruse doesn’t suggest any criterion for distinguishing between beliefs based on common sense and beliefs based on metaphysical reality so we can express doubts about the examples he gives for common-sense beliefs. Furthermore, even if it were to be accepted that common-sense beliefs are infallible the problem still exists because natural selection isn’t a common-sense belief, so according to this, all of our beliefs might be mistaken, including the natural selection mechanism itself, and applying it to human knowledge.

Facing the question of the meaning of life and finding answers to it has been one of the most important human concerns in the history of thought. The aim of the present study is to provide an interpretation of life and meaning and to explain the meaningful factor of life according to Mulla Sadra, which is based on a descriptive-analytical method. The research findings show that in his works, he interpreted "meaning" as a "valuable goal" that can be achieved through "discovery of the existence of meaning". Mulla Sadra as a comprehensively looking philosopher, in addition to considering the supernatural as a meaningful factor of life; He also considers nature and non-nature to be significant during the supernatural, but at lower levels. He considers life as a single stream, including worldly life and the hereafter, and to give meaning to life, he accepts the combined view (God and eternity of the soul) and use the influence of God on the meaning of life in two ways: "God as a valuable goal" and "Love-based communication".

One of the most comprehensive studies in the Sadrian philosophical system pertains to the field of anthropology. Moreover, one of the manifestations of the comprehensiveness of this discussion is dealing with the nature and place of the perfect Man in the order of being and its referents and worldly and other-worldly functions, which have been explored in several studies. However, what they have all neglected is the attention to the reasons of the specific nature of this station and its consequences in this school of philosophy. It seems that the attention to this point can grant more depth to anthropological discussions in the Transcendent Philosophy and Islamic philosophy. Accordingly, this study aims to provide an analytic account of the reason for the uniqueness of this station in Mullā Ṣadrā’s works. Here, while analyzing the factors affecting the emergence and perfection of human beings through difference of souls within the framework of apriori and aposteriori multiplicity, the authors explain the restriction of this station to quite a few people. The findings of this study indicate that the station of the perfect Man can be attained through the prophet’s invitation, obligation, courtesy, etc. Nevertheless, developing the highest levels of this station is not possible for all, which justifies the quality of the voluntary perfection of the Infallible Imāms (‘a) and the prophets (ṣ).

This paper studies Ervin Yalom's strategies in the treatment of death anxiety and his philosophical foundations. Yalom is a Sartre-type existential psychotherapist seeking to reduce the problem of death anxiety through existential solutions based on atheism and unbelieving in religions. He believes that man has accidentally been thrown into this non-meaningful world and has no choice but to give it meaning. According to him, human beings face four existential concerns in this world: death, freedom, loneliness, and emptiness, death is the most important among them. As an existential psychotherapist, with a naturalistic and atheistic approach and a nihilistic view to death, he accepts the reality of death as a human existential concern and tries to reduce its anxiety by strategies such as thanatopsis, having an existential vision to death, thinking about Being, self-disclosure, increasing life satisfaction, desensitization of death, creativity, rippling.

Nowadays, animal ethics/rights is a main branch in applied ethics. In second half of the 20th century, this field was seriously put in the center of philosophical discussions, and various theories came into existence in defense of animals. After introducing western theories on this issue, this essay by enjoying of novel thoughts of Allamah Tabatabai that adapted from the Koran’s doctrines, would set forth a theory on animal status that copes with Islamic texts about animals. Allamah Tabatabai by enjoying of ayah 38 of surah al-Araf believes that animals have private beliefs, and these private beliefs result in that animals reveal various ethical behaviors, that they must be responsible for them. So, they should revive in the resurrection. The consequence of this view is that animals are persons, and the life could be meaningful or meaningless for them. This exalted status results in high ethical rights for them that we can observe them in Islamic texts.

This study seeks to examine Mollasadra's perspective on the nature of personality; This is made possible by a new approach to Sadrian soul discourse and by basing on their general philosophical foundations, such as the "originality of existence", the "rationalization of existence" and ... The main question of this article is: How does Mulla Sadra explain her personality based on her philosophical system? In this regard, using the descriptive-analytical method, after summarizing and extracting the personality components from Mulla Sadra's works, Mulla Sadra's Philosophical-Ethical Personality Model as the first model of philosophical personality in the field of Islamic philosophy, is explained And it is provided. The results of this study are: To present a model of human existential personality in a longitudinal graph three times: General (as a factor in personality formation); Non-voluntary personality; and special voluntary personality. The first two levels are mainly the basic level of personality; What constitutes the shackle of the voluntary personality of man is the dominant and contemplative property of man; This rank of personality is the basis of human perceptions, actions, thoughts and intentions in this world and the criterion of belonging to the eagle and eagle, And also Khaddat in Janet and Narr is next in line, and the truth of the human personality is based on it.

Moral motivation is an important issue in meta-ethics. Its three basic issues include the nature of moral motivation, the nature of the relationship between moral judgment and moral motivation, and the relationship between moral motivation and the nature of moral attributes. Fakhr’s views are scholastic and theological, and from the point of view of contemporary moral philosophy, a modern reading of them is presented. Fakhr has a cognitive approach to the nature of moral motivation and holds that belief is necessary and sufficient to create a desire and stimulus for action. According to Fakhrchr('39')s stance, the personality-oriented approach is complementary to the cognitive approach. The nature of the relationship between moral judgment and motivation is a revocable introspectivism. That is, there is a necessary but rescindable relationship between judgment and moral motivation. Regardless of its possible critiques, his transcendentalism is consistent with his theory of motivation. To him, moral judgments are beliefs about the transcendental existence of values in the essence of God that, with the help of personality-building factors, create a desire and lead to moral motivation.

In the philosophical discussions of Islamic philosophy, the power of imagination as one of the inner powers of man is the guardian of the imaginary faces and has epistemological, anthropological, and cognitive functions. Mulla Sadra, unlike the previous philosophers, proves it as one of the fundamental principles of proof of physical resurrection by proving the civility of the power of imagination. In this research, by extracting the philosophical foundations of proving the civility of the power of imagination, its arguments and theories which are the result of the cessation of this power, is discussed. In the works of Mulla Sadra, the results of the transcendence of the power of imagination and prophecies are not explicitly mentioned and the role of each of them is not expressed in the explanation of physical resurrection. The results obtained from the discretion of the power of imagination and its propagation show a more coherent Mulla Sadra's theory than other explanations of the physical resurrection. Some of the results from the proof of the immensity of imagination in the world of the hereafter are: the philosophical justification of the entry of imperfect creatures into the world of the hereafter; the acquisition of rewards and eagles in the grave universe; and the pleasures and sufferings of the world of the hereafter; the perceptual form of paradise and hell and their existence in the universe The soul; the permanence of blessings in the hereafter, and the encroachment in heaven and hell; the lack of confusion of created faces and the material consequences of not having the blessings of the past.

There are two main approaches on evolutionary epistemology: analogical or Spencerian approach, literal or Darwinian approach. In the first approach, one attempts to argue that process of culture and science growth is analogue to main process of organisms growth in biology which based on natural selection; while in the second approach, one attempts to argue that not only growth and evolution of animals and humans physical body is product and result of natural selection, but also growth of their mind structures is result of natural selection. The main question of this essay is that if the Ruse's claim and his arguments in rejection of analogical approach are strong enough or not. Many thinkers support this approach, including Karl Popper, Kuhn Thomas, Stephen Toulmin, Campbell Donald and David Hull. Ruse believe that although there are analogies between growth of organisms and growth of human knowledge, but there are also significant disanalogies between them which makes analogy between this two fields are weaken, so analogical approach is not defensible by Ruse. We agree with the core of Ruse's claim, that is, the analogical approach in evolutionary epistemology is implausible, but we believe that his arguments in refuting some versions of this approach such as kuhn's version and Camdell's, are failed.