محمدحسن سیاری زهان

Common millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) belonging to the family Gramineae is a warm-season grass with a growing season length of 60–100 days. It is specially adapted to hot summers in the tropics and high altitudes, where the growing season is short, and the soil is poor in fertility. Among grain crops, common millet has the lowest water requirement and can grow on any type of soil except coarse sand. Therefore, appropriate management of common millet is necessary to maximize yield and yield components. Organic matter is one of the most important constituents of soil, significantly affecting the availability of nutrients and improving the soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of different levels of municipal waste compost and orange waste compost on vegetative, reproductive growth, and yield of common millet.

The experiment was designed as a factorial arrangement based on a randomized complete block design with three replications under field conditions in Gonabad during the growing season of 2018. Treatments were three levels of municipal waste compost (0, 7.5, and 15 t.ha-1) and three levels of orange waste compost (0, 7.5, and 15 t.ha-1). The measured indices including vegetative characteristics (plant height (cm), number of tillers per plant, plant dry weight (g.plant-1), number of leaves per plant, panicle height (cm)) and reproductive characteristics (seed yield per plant (g), 1000-seed weight (g), seed yield, biological yield (kg.ha-1) and harvest index). Finally, the experimental data were statistically analyzed using the SAS program ver. 9.1 and comparison of means was performed by LSD test at 5% probability level.

The results showed that with increasing use of municipal waste compost as well as orange compost in soil, plant height, dry weight and grain yield and harvest index increased. The highest amount of municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (15 t.ha-1) increased the plant height by 15.8 and 11.8 percent, respectively, compared to control. The reason for the increase in plant height due to the use of organic materials is due to the improvement of the chemical and physical properties of the soil, the increase in the storage capacity of nutrients, and the preparation of the ground bed for better root growth in the soil. The maximum dry-weight plant was obtained in the treatment of municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (15 t.ha-1). The nitrogen present in organic fertilizers enhances vegetative growth, and the high potassium in these fertilizers, in addition to accelerating cell division and directly affecting vegetative growth due to its role in the production of carbohydrates and proteins and the concentration of cell sap, increases the dry weight of the plant. The highest seed yield was observed at the level of 15 tons per hectare of municipal waste compost, with a 60.2% increase compared to the control, and at the level of 15 tons per hectare of orange waste compost, with an increase of 37.4% compared to the zero level. Also, the simple effect of municipal waste compost and orange waste and the interaction of two treatments on grain weight per plant, 1000-seed weight, biological yield, and harvest index were significant. The highest seed weight per plant was obtained from the highest levels of municipal waste compost and orange waste (15 t.ha-1 + 15 t.ha-1). The highest 1000-seed weight and biological yield were observed in the treatment of municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (15 t.ha-1). Also, the highest harvest index was related to the treatment of municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (7.5 t.ha-1). Probably, the availability of more nutrients for the plant has led to an increase in the production of photosynthetic materials for the seeds and, as a result, an increase in their weight.

The results of this study showed that municipal waste compost and orange waste compost had a significant effect on the yield and growth characteristics of common millet. Thus, results showed that municipal waste compost (15 t.ha-1) and orange waste compost (15 t.ha-1) had a strong impact on the yield and growth characteristics of common millet under field conditions.

Phosphorus (P) is one of the most important nutritional elements of plants and it is necessary for the development of plant roots. Due to the high cost of chemical fertilizers, it is important to use cheap sources such as rock phosphate (RP) to supply P needed by plants. The efficiency of RP is low and its use alone cannot supply the P required by the plant. One of the ways to increase the efficiency of RP is to use phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB). Considering the salinity of soil and irrigation water in many pistachio-growing areas of Iran, the use of salt-resistant PSB can increase their resistance to salt stress in addition to supplying the P required by pistachios.

In order to investigate the role of PSB in supplying the required P of pistachio seedlings under saline conditions, a factorial experiment was conducted in the form of a completely randomized design with 3 replications in greenhouse conditions. The factors included PSB at three levels [control (PSB0), Pseudomonas sp. 1 (PSB1) and Pseudomonas sp. 2 (PSB2)], RP at two levels (0 and 30 mg P from rock RP) and irrigation water salinity at three levels (0, 5 and 10 dS/m). The bacteria used in this study were able to produce ACC-deaminase, indole acetic acid and dissolve tricalcium phosphate in vitro. For inoculation, inoculum containing each bacterium with a population of 108 cells/ml was prepared in the nutrient broth medium and each pistachio seed (P. vera L. cv. Badami) was inoculated with 500 µL of bacterial inoculum. The plants were irrigated with non-saline water for four weeks and then with saline water until harvesting based on experimental treatments. During the growth period, the soil moisture of the pots was kept at about 80% of the field capacity by weight method. Finally, shoot and root sampling was performed and various characteristics such as shoot and root dry weight, chlorophyll, carotenoids, proline, soluble sugars, RWC, MSI and phosphorus as well as sodium concentrations were measured. Analysis of variance of traits was performed using SAS software and the means were compared using the LSD method with a probability level of P≤0.05.

The results showed that water salinity decreased the dry weight of shoot and root, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, relative water content (RWC) and membrane stability index (MSI) of leaf and p concentration of shoot and root of pistachio seedlings. Auxin produced by bacteria can directly increase cell division and growth or indirectly increase ACC-deaminase production. On the other hand, proline, soluble sugars and sodium were accumulated in the leaves of seedlings with increasing water salinity. According to the results, although the use of RP alone did not show significant effect on the studied indicators, its simultaneous use with PSB had the greatest role in improving the growth of pistachio seedlings, especially in saline conditions. The highest amount of dry weight of shoot (1.89 g.plant) and root (1.59 g.plant), chlorophyll b (1.30 mg/g fresh weight), carotenoids (1.35 mg/g fresh weight), soluble sugars (59.1 mg/g fresh weight), proline (36.7 mg.g-1 fresh weight), leaf RWC (91 %), leaf MSI (84%) and the P concentration of shoot (0.39 %) and root (0.35 %) was obtained from the simultaneous application of RP and PSB (especially PSB2) in non-saline conditions. The PSB increase soil P availability by reducing of soil pH by release of protons and organic acids and mineralization by production of acid phosphatases. Bacteria, in addition to increasing soil P availability, improve phosphorus uptake and chlorophyll content in plants by affecting root morphology and its development in soil. On the other hand, inoculation with PSB (both separately and together with rock phosphate) reduced sodium accumulation in the aerial parts and roots of pistachio seedlings.

Unlike pistachio trees, the tolerance of pistachio seedlings to salt stress is low. According to the results, the salinity symptoms were visible in the pistachio seedling leaves at the water salinity level of 10 dS/m, which caused the drying of the lower leaves and the burning of the edges of the young leaves. On the other hand, although the application of RP alone did not have significant effect on increasing the tolerance of plants to salt stress, the simultaneous use of RP with PSB increased growth, the accumulation of proline and soluble sugars, the concentration of chlorophyll and carotenoids, the amount of RWC and MSI and P concentration of pistachio seedlings, especially in saline conditions. Therefore, the use of PSB can help the growth and establishment of pistachio seedlings under salinity stress conditions and increase the efficiency of RP and supply P needed by the seedlings.

Oilseeds are very important as the raw material for the production of vegetable oil (one of the basic needs of the society in the food field). Therefore, achieving any success in increasing the amount of production and supplying as many of these products as possible to meet the domestic needs of the country is considered a valuable and great success. Safflower, with the scientific name Carthamus tinctorius L., is an annual long-day plant from the chicory family. Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis L.), which is also called Brassica kaber in some literatures, is one of the most important weeds belonging to the Brassicaceae family. Competition can perhaps be considered the most important biological interference factor effective in determining crops productivity.Effective management of weeds in agricultural systems is very decisive. Extensive and repeated use of herbicides has led to the emergence of resistant weed biotypes, which has often increased the cost of control. It has also caused some concerns about the negative environmental effects of herbicides. When the competition is for light, the competitive ability of the species is first determined by the morphological traits. The response of crop height to weed competition is related to the density and intensity of competition and the type of weeds and can be positive or negative.

An split plots experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replication was carried out in the Research Farm of University of Birjand during the 2018-2019 cropping year. The treatments include four level of phosphorus fertilizer (0, 25, 50 and 75 kg P 2O5 ha-1) as the main plot and the four wild mustard densities (0, 7, 14 and 28 pl m-2) as subplots. Plant growth characteristics were measured from 150 to 210 days after planting (DAP) in five stages at 15-day intervals. Also, at the harvest maturity, the yield and yield components of the crop were determined.

According to the results, the highest (35.48 g m-2) and lowest (28.23 g m-2) safflower leaf dry weights were obtained from control (no-mustard) and 28 pl m-2 mustard densities at 165 DAP, respectively. The highest (1.67) and lowest (1.19) leaf area index of safflower were achieved at 210 DAP using 25 and 50 kg P 2O5 ha-1, respectively. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the most effective level of phosphorus on the improvement of safflower growth traits (e.g. leaf area and dry weight and stem dry weight) and its competitive ability was 25 kg P2O5 ha-1, although the its effects were not significant for many traits, and as phosphorus levels increased, the competition shifted more in favor of wild mustard. In accordance with these results, and probably due to luxury consumption by weeds, it has been observed that when weed density is high, adding fertilizer leads to superiority of weed growth over crop (Blackshaw et al., 2008). Also, the highest leaf area index of mustard (0.63) was obtained at a density of 56 mustard pl m-2 at 165 DAP and the lowest one of (0.26) was observed at a density of 14 pl m-2 at the same time. It was also observed that the height and leaf area index of wild mustard were the highest in all measuring stages at higher weed densities, indicating the competitiveness of the weed. The increase in weed density had a negative impact on the safflower, although insignificant in many cases, which could be the result of the competitive effect of mustard for resources such as radiation and nutrients (Wright et al., 1999).

In general, the increase in weed density had a positive effect on the yield and its components in wild mustard and a negative effect on the safflower, and under these condition, the application of more than 25 kg P2O5 ha-1 does not have a positive effect on the crop. Thus, it seems that the revision in weed management and the use of fertilizer as an agronomic strategy can be effective in reducing the crop losses caused by the presence of high densities of weeds (Clements et al., 2014).

Due to the toxicity of metals, their side effects may cause serious damage to soil organisms, plants and living organisms. Many conventional methods for cleaning pollution from soil have problems and limitations. The electro kinetic method is a relatively new method for remediating soils contaminated with heavy metals, which has a high efficiency in removing heavy metals from the soil compared to other existing methods.

In this research, the removal of chromium (VI) from nitrate-containing soil has been investigated. At first, the soil was artificially contaminated with potassium dichromate at a concentration of 250 mg/kg, and then in order to investigate the effect of nitrate on the removal of chromium. The soil was also impregnated with calcium nitrate.

By conducting electrokinetic experiments, it was found that with the increase of the electric current introduced into the soil, the electric gradient passing between the electrodes increased, as a result of which the transfer of ions also increased under the influence of the phenomenon of ion migration and electroosmosis. The percentage gives 98.28%. Also, the use of EDTA complexing agent compared to distilled water increases the efficiency of the method from 95.57% to 97.80%. As a result, the use of EDTA electrolyte and increasing the voltage increases the removal efficiency.

Results revealed experiments showed that the use of the electrokinetic method has a negligible effect on the removal of chromium (VI) from soil containing nitrate.

In a laboratory study, the effect of seed nutritional pretreatment on germination and seedling growth traits of lentil (Lens culinaris Med.) in the form of two separate experiments in the form of a completely randomized design with three replications for two pretreatment materials [prime with iron sulfate (FeSO4) and zinc sulfate (ZnSO4) ] were investigated. In each experiment and for each prime material, five levels of prime material concentration (30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 mM) were considered. The measured traits were germination percentage and speed, length of root and shoot, wet and dry weight of seedling, and longitudinal root index of seedling. The results of the data showed that in terms of the type of pretreatment, iron sulfate was superior to zinc sulfate and caused the major improvement of the germination indicators, except for the germination speed. Also, by increasing the concentration from 30 to 60 mM, the highest indicators of germination and seedling growth were obtained. However, with a further increase in the concentration of the pre-treatment material, a decreasing trend was observed in all the measured traits, which could possibly be due to the toxicity in the seeds under high concentrations of metals. In general, according to the obtained results, it seems that the use of these two substances, especially iron sulfate, with a maximum concentration of 60 mM, is beneficial for improving the germination and nutritional characteristics of seeds.

Increasing the yield of agricultural products per unit area is very important for preparing the food needed by the growing population of the country. One of the solutions is to add fertilizers in different forms and compositions to the soil to increase crop yield and strengthen soil fertility. Far away has been common all over the world.

In order to investigate the effect of different levels of camel manure and manganese sulfate on growth and yield and yield components of Setaria italic, a factorial experiment in the form of a randomized complete block design with three replications in 2009-2010 in Abuzar well cultivated lands. Khosf city was implemented. Experimental treatments included: camel manure at three levels (0, 10 and 20 t / ha) and manganese sulfate at four levels (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha).

The results of statistical analysis of the data showed that different levels of manure and manganese sulfate and the interaction between them had a significant effect on biological yield, number of grains per panicle and grain yield. So that the highest values ​​of the above indices were observed in the treatment of manure 20 tons per hectare and 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. The highest and lowest number of panicles were obtained in the treatment of 20 tons of camel manure and the application of 30 kg/ha of manganese sulfate and the control treatment without the use of camel manganese and manganese sulfate. The length of the panicle was also affected by the main effects of manure and manganese sulfate. So that the maximum panicle length was obtained in the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of manure and the treatment of 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. The effect of manure levels on number of tillers per plant, number of spikes per plant and number of plants per square meter was significant, but other effects had no significant effect on these traits and the highest number of tillers per plant, number of spikes per plant and number of plants In the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure were obtained per square meter. The main effects of different levels of manure and manganese sulfate at the level of one percent probability had a significant effect on 1000-grain weight and millet harvest index, but the interaction of these factors did not have a significant effect on these traits. The highest 1000-seed weight was observed in the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and the treatment of 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. Also, the highest harvest index was related to the treatment of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and also the highest harvest index was obtained from the consumption of 60 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate.

Finally, it can be concluded that the best treatments in this experiment were the use of 20 tons per hectare of camel manure and 90 kg per hectare of manganese sulfate. In fact, manure improves plant growth by gradually providing elements and using micronutrients. The use of manure is one of the appropriate solutions to achieve ecological agriculture that can increase agricultural production and due to the fact that most of the soils of South Khorasan province are calcareous and manganese deficient, the use of this element can be Help to remove this limitation and increase plant yield.

There is an urgent need to increase per capita food production to compete with high population growth while maintaining environmental sustainability. Because nitrogen plays a vital role in food production for humans and livestock, nitrogen management is essential in food production. In most cropping systems, nitrogen management seems to be a major challenge due to its high mobility and natural tendency for losses from the soil-plant system to the environment. Soil organic carbon plays a key role in improving soil ecological conditions. Adding organic matter to the soil is an excellent tool for improving physical, chemical and biological conditions and is almost always desirable. Soil organic carbon stock of crop ecosystems may be increased by improving farming practices. The application of green manure, fertilizer and the return of crop straw into the soil are known as management operations to increase soil organic carbon. Fertilizers, especially nitrogen, increase crop yield, and organic carbon is returned to the soil through roots and debris, which in most cases leads to increased soil organic carbon.

This study was conducted with the aim of utilizing a set of improving farming practices in diverse cropping systems to improve nitrogen efficiency during two crop years. Farming practices including removal of summer fallow were used by importing three crops of mung bean, corn and wild rocket in rotation plus nitrogen supply levels factor. The crop rotation factor was applied in four levels of Fallow-wheat, mung bean-wheat, corn-wheat and wild rocket-wheat and the factor of nitrogen fertilizer (0, 180 and 360 kg.ha-1) in a randomized complete block design as factorial. Soil mineral nitrogen (nitrate and ammonium) were measured before sowing wheat and grain, straw and total plant nitrogen after harvest. Uptake efficiency, utilization efficiency, agronomic efficiency and nitrogen harvest index were calculated.

The results of combined analysis of variance showed that the crop rotation and nitrogen were significantly effective (ρ ≤ 0.01) on plant nitrogen, harvest index and nitrogen efficiency. Increasing nitrogen fertilizer up to 360 kg.ha-1 increased grain nitrogen, straw nitrogen, total plant nitrogen and also nitrogen harvest index. While the best uptake, utilization and agronomic efficiency of nitrogen was observed on the treatment without nitrogen fertilizer. Comparison of the means showed that the wild rocket-wheat crop rotation had the best result among all measured traits except utilization efficiency, while the utilization efficiency in the corn-wheat crop rotation showed the best performance. The results clearly show the effect of increasing organic carbon on nitrogen availability and grain nitrogen concentration as well as the role of cover crops and legume, in increasing access to nitrogen. The amount of grain nitrogen was directly affected by the amount of nitrogen fertilizer. The highest correlation coefficient was seen between agronomic and uptake efficiency (r = 0.96**). There was also a significant inverse relationship between nitrogen harvest index and the types of calculated efficiencies. The amount of uptake efficiency and agronomic efficiency in all crop rotations except corn-wheat in the second year improved compared to the first year. The highest increase in efficiency in the second year was related to the wild rocket-wheat crop rotation. In the conditions of 360 and 180 kg.ha-1 nitrogen fertilizer, the nitrogen harvest index increased in the second year compared to the first year. While in conditions without nitrogen fertilizer, nitrogen harvest index has a significant decrease. Therefore, at least in the short term, to increase the nitrogen harvest index, the minimum supply of nitrogen fertilizer should be used, even under improving crop management conditions such as green manure, removal of fallow and introduction of legumes in rotation and return of crop residues.

Continuous cropping, removal of fallow, use of cover crops and legume and preservation of residues led to increased carbon and nitrogen sequestration in soil and consequently increase biomass and nitrogen concentration in plant tissue. On the other hand, crop rotations that increased soil organic carbon and improved soil fertility quickly improved nitrogen efficiency and nitrogen harvest index.

Today in many parts of the world and specially in Iran, water and soil salinity is one of the environmental stress and a serious risk to plant growth and crop production. One way to modify the salinity of irrigation water for agriculture, identification and application of different types of algae. The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effect of two types of algae on the growth characteristics of wheat and basil under salinity stress.

This research was carried out as factorial in two phases of laboratory (in the form of a completely randomized design) and greenhouse (in the form of a randomized complete block design) in the Faculty of Agriculture of University of Birjand located in Amirabad campus in 2015. The first factor is salinity with four levels (1250, 2500, 5000 and 10000 μs cm-1 in both laboratory and greenhouse sections and the second factor is the application of algae with 3 levels (green-blue microalgae Spirulina platensis (for saline water)), single-celled algae Chlorella vulgaris (for fresh water) and control no use of algae. Algae were grown separately in water salinity treatments described above in 50 × 50 cm aquariums in the laboratory. The soil was well mixed with a small volume of saline solution as required and water added to maintain soil moisture at 0.18 cm3 cm–3 (35% water-holding capacity), and then soil was incubated for 1 weeks for subsequent use in the pot experiment.

In the part of laboratory experiment, the results of analysis of variance showed that there was a significant difference between different levels of salinity stress and algae type on dry weight of plumule and rootlet in wheat and basil, but there was no statistically significant difference between their interactions. The application of algae caused a significant increase in the dry weight of plumule and rootlet wheat. The highest dry weight was obtained in the application of Chlorella algae (0.0125 and 0.0008 g pl-1 per plumule and rootlet, respectively). However, both of algae reduced significantly the dry weight of plumule and rootlet of basil. In pot experiment, the results of variance analysis showed that algae type (P <0.05) and different levels of water salinity (P <0.01) had a significant effect on wheat plant height and for basil just were significant different salinity levels (P <0.01) but their interaction had no significant effect on the trait. The use of algae increased significantly the wheat height (algae Chlorella 9.34% and the use of algae spirulina 6.56%). The interaction effect of algae type and salinity levels (P <0.01) were significant in wheat dry weight but for basil dry weight the simple effect was significant. Results indicated that the interaction of algae type and salinity stress had a significant effect on electrolyte leakage of wheat and basil.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the type of algae had a different effect on the two types of plants, so that for wheat plant chlorella algae and for basil plant type of spirulina algae had more effect on traits and moderated the effects of salinity stress.

Moisture stress is one of the most important limiting factors which can affect crop production in semi-arid regions. Proper management and application of advanced techniques to maintain soil moisture and improve soil moisture holding capacity in the soil are effective in increasing water use efficiency and improving water resource utilization. Due to the importance of chickpea as a source of protein and the irreparable damage of moisture stress to yield of chickpea, the selection of methods that can increase the tolerance of the plant to moisture stress is very important. Recently, the use of superabsorbent has increased due to the ability to absorb and maintain water and consequently increase water use efficiency in the soil. Diatomite, as a superabsorbent, is a unique natural material with interesting features including very fine structure, low mass density, high porosity, high specific surface, chemical neutrality and high silica content. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the proper amount of diatomite to obtain maximum chickpea yield under moisture stress conditions. 

In order to investigate the effect of diatomite on yield and yield component of chickpea under different irrigation regimes, an experiment was conducted in Khaf in the year 1396-1397. This research was conducted as split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications. The main factor of irrigation regimes was five levels (dry farming, full irrigation, one irrigation in vegetative stage, one irrigation in reproductive stage, two irrigations: one vegetative stage and one reproductive stage) and factor the subdivisions of diatomite were in three levels (0, 3.5 t/ha and 7 t/ha). Each plot has 6 cultivating lines 30 cm long and 3 meters long. In this experiment, diatomite was placed at a depth of 20 cm (maximum root zone density) under seed. The cultivation was carried out manually on the fifth of March with a density of 45 plants per square meter and a depth of 5 cm. In flowering after full yellowing of chickpea pods, number of pods, number of seed in pod, 100 seed weight, percentage of pod unfilled, seed yield and biological yield were measured. Harvest was calculated by dividing the seed yield into biological yield and multiplying it by 100.

 The results showed that changing the irrigation regime from full irrigation to dry farming caused a decrease in the quantitative traits studied. The lowest seed yield (318.54 kg/ha) and biological yield (725.44 kg/ha) were obtained in dry farming treatment. Application of diatomite under different irrigation regimes increased all evaluated traits and seed yield. The highest seed yield (1745.67 kg/ha) was obtained in irrigation treatment in vegetative and reproductive stages and consumption of 7 ton/ha of diatomite and the lowest amount (363.97 kg/ha) was recorded in dry farming without diatomite application. Also, application of 7 ton/ha of diatomite compared to non-application of diatomite increased by 29, 29, 77 and 39% in irrigation regimes including dry farming, one irrigation in vegetative stage, one irrigation in reproductive stage, two irrigations including stage, respectively. Vegetative and reproductive were in the trait of seed yield. Based on the results of interaction effects in irrigation treatment in vegetative and reproductive stage and other low irrigation treatments including irrigation in vegetative stage, irrigation in reproductive stage and dry farming application of 3.5 ton/ha diatomite with application of 7 ton/ha of diatomite in all studied traits in a statistical group it placed; Therefore, it can be said that the use of 3.5 ton/ha diatomite is the most appropriate amount in increasing the yield of chickpeas under low irrigation regimes. 

Generally, the results showed that the amount of irrigation water had a significant effect on yield and yield components of chickpea, thus reducing irrigation water in the treatments of two irrigations: one vegetative stage and one reproductive stage, one irrigation in reproductive stage, one irrigation in vegetative stage and dry farming in compared to the full irrigation treatment, it reduce 37, 63, 81 and 86% in seed yield, respectively, and this decreasing trend in other measured traits was observed. At the same time, reducing the amount of irrigation water increased the percentage of pod unfilled. However, the negative effects of reduced irrigation water can be reduced by using diatomite. The result showed that the application of 3.5 ton/ha diatomite at different irrigation levels in all measured traits didn't differ significantly from the application of 7 ton/ha of diatomite. Based on this, it can be said that the application of 3.5 ton/ha is the optimal amount. In general, using advanced methods such as using diatomite as a super absorbent while saving the cost of crop production in dry areas, by maintaining and storing moisture in the soil and improving water permeability in the soil can be an effective step in order to exploit limited water resources and increase seed yield.

In order to investigate the effect of plant growth promoting rhizo-bacteria (PGPRs) and humic acid on some morphological and physiological characteristics of marshmallow (Altheae officinalis L.) a pot experiment was carried out under greenhouse condition at Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, in 2017. The experiment was conducted using a complete randomized blocks design based on factorial arrangement with three replications. First factor was seed inoculation with strains of Pseudomonas fluorescence bacteria at four levels (non- inoculation, inoculation with strains 51, 79 and 163) and second factor was humic acid at four levels (0, 150, 300 and 450 mg/kg soil). Results showed that Pseudomonas fluorescence strains and humic acid had significant effects on morphological and physiological measured traits. The most effects of inoculation created by strain 163 of Pseudomonas fluorescenss bacteria and it increased leaf dry weight, leaf area, leaf chlorophyll index, carotenoids and protoin leaf compare to control. The result also showed that increasing of humic acid concentration up to 150 mg/kg of soil increased, leaf area, leaf chlorophylls index, chlorophyll fluorescence index and protein leaf compare to control. Combination use of Pseudomonas fluorescenss bacteria (strain 163) and humic acid (150 mg/kg soil) had the most effect on increasing of leaf fresh weight, leaf area, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoids and phosphor leaf compare to control. Due to these results, application of biological fertilizers containing Pseudomonas fluorescence and humic acid can improve morphological and physiological characteristics of marshmallow.

Many arid and semi-arid agricultural areas are facing with shortages of water and nutrients, especially micronutrients. Drought stress is one of the most important environmental stresses that seriously damage the growth and development of crops, limits the production and productivity of plants more than any other environmental factor. The use of micronutrients can partially alleviate the negative effects of this environmental stress on the growth and production of crops. Iron micronutrient plays an essential role in some biological and physiological processes such as respiration, photosynthesis and chlorophyll biosynthesis and is also effective in diastases as well as in chlorophyll production. According to the above, the main purpose of this experiment was to investigate the growth response of Roshan cultivar to applying iron sulfate fertilizer in different moisture conditions and to investigate changes in the content of some plant elements under these conditions.

In order to evaluate the growth and uptake of iron and other nutrients by wheat, cv. Roshan, a two-factor factorial experiment was conducted in 2012 in the Research Greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand. The first factor was consisted of four different levels of ferrous sulfate (0, 50, 100 and 150 mg.kg-1 soil) and the second factor included two soil moisture treatments including 50 and 100% soil field capacity. After preparing the pots and applying experimental treatments, the seeds were planted and after emergence, the plant density was set to 10 plants in the pot. Moisture levels were applied from the beginning of experiments and watering the pots was done daily based on the weight of the pots and taking into account 20% drainage of soil moisture (in each irrigation treatment). Sampling was done after 8 weeks (early stem elongation stage) and at this time some morphological traits (number of leaves, leaf area, number of tillers and plant height) and the SPAD index and relative water content of leaves were measured. The iron, potassium, nitrogen and protein contents of the plants were also determined for each pot separately. Analysis of variance was performed using SAS software and mean comparison was performed using FLSD test at a significant level of 5%.

As soil moisture decreased from 100 to 50% of field capacity, plant height (5.8%), number of stems (37%), number of leaves (22%), stem diameter (15.8%), leaf area (33%), relative leaf water content (16.8%) and SPAD index (5.45%) decreased. The results also showed that in the control treatment (without iron fertilizer), the highest amount of SPAD index (38.8) was obtained, which with an increase of ferrus sulfate to 150 mg.kg-1 of soil, it decreased by 5.8%. Also, with the increase in soil water content to 100% of field capacity, the percentage of protein, nitrogen and potassium of wheat plants decreased by 9.2, 17.18 and 23.7%, respectively, compared to 50% of field capacity. The iron content of leaf in 100% of the field capacity was equal to 142.7 mg.kg-1 dry matter, which decreased by 27% by reducing the soil water content to 50% of the field capacity. Increasing the iron fertilizer from zero to 50, 100 and 150 mg.kg-1 soil caused the leaf nitrogen percentage to increase by 5, 9.5 and 7.2%, respectively. Leaf iron content in these levels of iron fertilizer was 35.8, 97.8 and 57.8% higher than the non-use of iron sulfate, respectively. Finally, biomass production was reduced by 31% compared to 100% of field capacity and finally water use efficiency was not affected by any of the experimental treatments. Finally, the watering at 50% of field capacity decreased the biomass production by 31%, compared to the 100% field capacity, and the water use efficiency was not affected by any treatments.

In general, the results of this experiment showed that with decreasing soil moisture level, a decrease occurs in the amount of plant dry matter. Increasing the level of ferrous sulfate only led to an increase in the leaf nitrogen and also a 100% increase in the iron content of the leaves, which in turn can play a role in improving drought resistance.

Because of increasing saline lands and decline the desirable agricultural lands for cultivation, the identification of salt-resistant medicinal plants is in high priority. For this purpose, an experiment was conducted to identify sustainable ecotypes of fennel at three levels of salinity stress in the greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Iran, during the years 2014-15. The experiment was performed as factorial based on a randomized complete block design with two factors. A) 10 ecotypes as:Sardasht, Saghez, Kerman, Tabriz, Sabzevar, Rum, Khousf, Bojnord, Mashhad and Shabesta and B) three salinity levels: 3,6 and 9 ds/m of Nacl with three replications. The results showed that, the salinity levels of 3, 6, 9 ds/m explained 72.0, 69.1 and 65.2% of the total variation using GT (Genotype × Trait) Biplot, respectively. Similarly, for total of salinity stress GT-Biplot explained 65.2% of total variation. Using polygonal diagram of genotype × trait, in stress 3 ds/m, the highest variation explained by ascorbate peroxidase, chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll, in stress 6 ds/m explained by superoxide dismutase, in stress 9 ds/m explained by chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and superoxide dismutase and in the total salinity stress levels explained by chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and superoxide dismutase, respectively. For all of stress levels, Tabriz ecotype for catalase, proline and malondialdehyde content, Mashhad ecotype for chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and ascorbate peroxidase and Rum ecotype for superoxide dismutase were superior to other ecotypes, respectively. Based on all traits and in all environments, Mashhad ecotype was better and more stable than other ecotypes.

Oil seeds had an important role in supplying food, heat and pharmaceutical needs. Today oil seeds are considered as the strategic agricultural products in the world.  Providing of essential elements for crops, especially micro-nutrients play an important role in increasing the quality of produced food and improving community health. Sulfur is one of the essential elements required for plants, which has been underestimated in recent years. In oil seeds, sulfur plays an important role in seeds quality and growth. These plants usually need more sulfur for suitable growth and higher yield. Synthesis of some essential proteins and vitamins in crops has been faced difficulty due to sulfur deficiency. The addition of organic matter with sulfur in soils with high acidity is an appropriate option for reducing acidity and dissolving the required elements of crops.

The limiting factors in crop production are high soil pH and its effect on availability of nutrients and also organic matter shortages. This research was conducted at Kerman Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center to determine the effect of sulfur and cattle manure on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of sesame varieties (Sesamum indicum L.) in a factorial experiment with completely randomized block design with 3 replications in 2016. The treatments consisted of powdered sulfur at four levels (0, 2, 4 and 8 t.ha-1), Cow manure at two levels (0 and 20 t.ha-1) and included two Jiroft-13 and Jiroft local varieties. After soil preparation the cultivars were planted on the rows with 50 cm distance. Grain yield, Harvest index, Oil and Protein Content, phosphorus and leaf sulfur content of sesame varieties were measured at the end of the growing season.

The results indicated that the highest level of sulfur (8 t.ha-1) except for harvest index caused a significant increase in the investigated traits compared to the control treatment. The interactions of Cattle manure and sulfur were significant on some traits and the highest grain yield belonged to the Jiroft-13 cultivar in the highest level of sulfur and Cattle manure. The Jiroft-13 cultivar had the highest grain oil and protein content and harvest index as compared to Jiroft local variety. Effects of sulfur and Cattle manure treatments on grain oil and protein were significant and the highest amount was observed in combined application of sulfur and manure. Application of sulfur increased the concentration of this element in sesame leaves and also due to local reduction of soil acidity, it had a significant effect on increasing phosphorus uptake. The results indicate that the integrated use of sulfur and cattle manure as an ecological solution in order to increase growth and quantitative and qualitative production of oil crops, especially in alkaline soils could be considered.

In general, the results of this study indicate that sulfur application had a significant effect on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of sesame varieties and soil improvement. Application of cattle manure improved physical and chemical properties of soil, resulted yield increase and provided the sulfur oxidation conditions. In alkaline soils, animal fertilizers can be used to release phosphorus and fixed micronutrients. Considering the positive effect of sulfur on soil pH reduction and increasing accessibility to phosphorus and micronutrients, consumption of this substance with animal fertilizers, will make each one more effective. Large amounts of sulfur are produced in the country's oil and gas industries which can play an important role in increasing the quality of oilseed crops. According to the experimental conditions and the obtained results in the absence of cow manure, using 8 t.ha-1 of sulfur is recommended. However, under application of 20 t.ha-1 of cow manure, while using lower levels of sulfur, favorable results can be obtained.  Jiroft-13 had a higher yield than local variety and is recommended for Kerman climatic conditions.

Nutrients availability near to plant root and the improvement of soil physical condition with the correct use of sufficient amount of animal manure can improve saffron yield. Investigating the Effect of Animal Fertilizer on availability of Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), and Iron (Fe) in Farms Soil of Saffron. This study was carried out in nursery unit of Agriculture Faculty, University of Birjand in a randomized complete block design with four replications in 25 kg soil pots in 2014. Treatments of manure including 0 (as control), 40 and 80 ton/ha, combined use of 40 ton/ha of manure + 100% chemical fertilizer and 80 ton/ha manure + 100% chemical fertilizer (soil test), application only chemical fertilizer without manure and application of the same above treatments in unplanted soil with similar conditions. Soil samples were taken after flowering in second year and nutrients determind in laboratory. The results showed that the simple effects of manure and chemical fertilizers were significant on available phosphorus and potassium in planted soil saffron and the highest amount of available phosphorus and potassium (respectively, 9.62 and 763.7 mg / kg soil) ) was obtained from 80 ton/ha of manure. The results also showed a significant effect of the interaction of chemical and animal fertilizers on the Fe concentration in the planted soil of saffron. Therefore, Increasing of P and K concentration and decreasing of Fe concentration in planted soil of saffron indicates the root activity of saffron, which can play an effective role in the availability of nutrients.

This research was performed to investigate the effect of hot water, ascorbic acid and salicylic acid treatments, and type of packing on physical and chemical properties of barberry fruit. The data werestatistically analyzed as a factorial experiment in a complete randomized design with four replicates. Fruits were treated with distilled water + salicylic acid (6 mM), distilled water + ascorbic acid (2%), hot water (75 °C), hot water (75 °C) + salicylic acid (6 mM), hot water (75°C) + ascorbic acid (2%),distilled water (control) and packed as MAP or vacuum and were then stored at 4 ± 1 °C for 45 days. Parameters of pH, soluble solids, titratable acidity, vitamin C, antioxidant, color, sensory and taste properties were evaluated. The results showed a significant effect of treatments and packaging on evaluated traits. All treatments preserved vitamin C and taste properties of fruit compared with control and effectively prevented fungal decay. A combination of hot water and salicylic acid 6 mM or2% ascorbic acid significantly preserved antioxidants. Vacuum packaging samples had more redness (a*) and brightness (L*) compared to the MAP. Results of this study showed that hot water (75 ̊C) and salicylic acid 6 mM or hot water (75 ̊C) + 2% ascorbic acid 2% pre-treatments and vacuum packing can improve effectively the quality of fresh seedless barberry fruit.

IntroductionToday salinity stress and salinization of soil is one of the most important environmental stress. As the amount of salt increases the plant growth rate decreases. Salinity cause imbalance in soil nutrient content. At this condition we have to use suitable nutrients to achieve appropriate yield. This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of salinity and zinc and iron application on yield and some morphological traits and quality of ajowan.
Material and methodsA split plots based on randomized complete block design with three replications was used in Khezri, South Khorasan in 2010. Salinity levels of irrigation water (970, 3500 and 7700 µs.cm-1) andfoliar application of micronutrients (control, Fe, Zn and Fe Zn) were as main plot and sub plot, respectively. Each plot consisted six rows. The length of rows was 4 m. Distance between rows and plants on the rows was 40 and 20 cm, respectively. Data analysis was conducted by MSTATC and SPSS software and means were compared by Duncan’s multiple range tests at 5 % probability level.
Result and DiscussionSeed yield significantly affected by salt stress and its interaction with foliar application treatment. The highest (258.11 g.m-2) and the lowest (171.56 g.m-2) seed yield respectively was related to treatments low salinity iron and high salinity (iron츩). In high salinity conditions, which showed a significant reduction in seed yield than low and common salinity, there was no significant difference between the levels of foliar application with control. In fact, iron foliar application in low salinity (control) significantly increased seed yield, but iron zinc spray application did not significantly change seed yield in comparison with control (without foliar application). On the other hand, in common salinity stress, foliar application treatments did not increase the yield, but in high salinity, the treatments increased seed yield.
In low salt stress conditions foliar application of iron increased significantly seed yield, however foliar application of iron츩 could not affect seed yield. On the other hand, in the common salt stress conditions, foliar application treatments could not increase seed yield, but under severe salt stress these treatments enhanced the yield. In general, under low, common and high salinity stress, the highest seed yield respectively was related to foliar application treatments iron, control and zinc. Seed yield reduction under salinity stress is related to its impact on shoot growth. In this experiment seed yield reduction was related to the decline of umbel number per plant. Correlation coefficient between seed yield and umbel number per plant also was positively significant. Like seed yield, salinity stress reduced different growth parameters such as plant height and branch number per plant. Effect of foliar application on seed essential oil percent and yield was not significant. However, in sever salinity stress, like seed yield, essential oil yield also declined. Although in high and common salt stress, foliar application had not any significant effect on essential oil yield, but under low salt stress, iron foliar application significantly increased essential oil yield. The results of this experiment show that the response of plant height and branch number per plant to irrigation treatments are opposite to each other. Considering that in all foliar application treatments, plant height increased, it can be concluded that the stimulus effect of these treatments on stem longitudinal growth causes the competition of the main stem with lateral branches. Therefore the number of branch per plant in iron and zinc foliar application treatments has declined. It has been reported that zinc deficiency can reduce plant height and yield due to adverse effects on biosynthesis of auxin.
ConclusionTotally, the results of this experiment showed that, due to the significant interaction between salinity and foliar application, microelements should be used with care and after further studies in this plant. Possibly, some plant responses to foliar application and salinity interactions can be related to the presence of different compounds in water used in salinity treatments. Also, the lack of response of some growth parameters such as yield and plant height to the foliar application can be due to complicated plant nutrition relationships with soil conditions such as pH and other soil nutrient concentrations.

Deficiency of water during the plant growth is one of the main factors which reduce the crops production around the world. Drought stress is one of the most important tensions that may occur around the low rainfall, high temperature and wind blowing environments. Plant response to this stress depends on the stage of plant growth and drought intensity. Weeds are unwanted and harmful plants with disturbance in agricultural practices which make increase the cost of crop production and reduce the crop yields. Rye (Secale cereal L.) is one of the most important weeds at wheat fields in Iran (Baghestani and Atri, 2003). Low expectations, allelopathic effects and similarity of life cycle and morphology, caused increasing of rye density in winter wheat fields. Water use efficiency (WUE) as an important physiological characteristic indicates the ability of plants to water stress. WUE may be affected by climatic and soil or plant factors. In plant communities, competition is one of most important physiological topics (Evans et al, 2003). At Inter-specific competition, weeds interfere to absorbing of light, water and nutrients through the adjacency with crop and so affect the growth and yield of crops. Weeds often compete with crops for soil water and reduce the accessibility of water. Competition between weeds and crops decrease the soil moisture and cause water stress which might decrease the weeds and crops growth. When the supply of water is limited, water drainage overlap areas in soil profile could be occurred relatively fast at early of in the crop life cycle.
In order to study the effects of drought stress on water use efficiency and root dry weight of wheat (Triticum aesativum L.) and rye (Secale cereale L.) in competition conditions, a pot experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of Agriculture Faculty , University of Birjand in 2012. The experiment was arranged as factorial based on completely randomized design with three replications. The treatments were included four wheat density (0, 8, 16 and 24 plants per pot), four rye density (0, 2, 4 and 6 plants per pot) and two levels of drought stress (irrigation after depletion of 20 and 60 % of field capacity moisture).
The results showed that all interaction effects were significant (P The results of this study indicated that drought stress reduced root dry mater of rye and water use efficiency of wheat and rye. Increasing inter-specific competition between wheat and rye reduced water use efficiency and root dry matter in two plants, but increasing intra-specific competition increased the studied traits. Generally, because of the overlap area of root development in wheat and rye, and more extensive root system of rye than the wheat, rye has higher competitive strength for water uptake.

IntroductionWeed is unwanted and harmful plant which annoyed or barrier in agricultural operations and increase the cost of the kept and reducing crop yields. Weeds often compete with crops for limited resources such as soil water and reduced water availability in crops. One of the important principles of integrated weeds management is the development of strategies for weed control based on recognition of the interaction between crop and weeds and quantity competition between crops and weeds is requisite for weed management decisions. One of the valid models for estimating the amount of competition between two species in mixed culture is the reciprocal method of one plant yield. Wheat in terms of production and Cultivated area is the most important of crops in Iran and world. Wheat production in world is about 728.8 million tons in 2015-2016. Weed problem in wheat is one of the most important agricultural issues in wheat growing areas of world and Plant community combination of wheat weeds are a reflection of planting season, agronomic and chemical weed control, geographical region and type of soil. In Iran many areas that under cultivated wheat faced with rye. Low expectations of rye with the ability of allelopathic and Morphology and similar life cycle with wheat, caused increasing of its area in winter wheat fields.
Materials and methodsIn order to study the evaluation of competitive parameters of Wheat and Rye under drought stress condition by using reciprocal yield model, a pot experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of Agriculture College at University of Birjand in 2012. The experiment arranged as factorial based on completely randomized design with three replications. The factors including four wheat density: 0, 8, 16, 24 plants / pot, four rye density: 0, 2, 4, 6 plants / pot and two levels of drought stress: irrigation after depletion of 20 and 60% of field capacity moisture.Models of reciprocal yield were fitted based on biological yield of one wheat plant and rye in two moisture levels and Relation reciprocal biological yield of one wheat plant and rye was obtained with density of two plants by using multivariate linear regression. Also relative competitive ability and Nich differentiation Index calculated by the coefficients of inter and intra specific competition.
Results and discussionThe result of reciprocal yield model showed that wheat had greater inter-specific competition than intra-specific, but in rye intra-specific was higher. The ability index of relative competition exhibited that effect of a wheat plant in 20 and 60% depletion of soil moisture was equal to effect of 0.79 and 0.64 of a rye plant, respectively. So, effect of a rye plant at the same moisture level was equal to 1.85 and 2.43 of a wheat plant, respectively. Ecological niche differentiation index of both plants was obtained less than 1 in each of two moisture levels. So that the Nich differentiation Index in 20 and 60% of field capacity moisture was about of 1.46 and 1.55 respectively.
ConclusionRelative competitive ability or rye and wheat with increasing drought stress increased and decreased, respectively. Biological yield of wheat more affected by inter-specific competition as a result rye compared to wheat was stronger competitor. Combined effects of drought stress and rye competition significantly decreased biological yield of wheat. Generally, under drought stress, intensity of intra and inter specific competition increased between rye and wheat plants and resulted to decreasing of biological yield of those plants. As a result, control of rye in drought stress condition is very important in wheat fields.

The use of corms with appropriate weight is one of the main factors in the flowering of saffron. Thus, the impacts of six organic (OS) and conventional (CS) production systems on the growth of saffron replacement corms was studied during one growth cycle from October 2015 up to May 2016 in this experiment. The experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications and six treatments including low, medium and high input organic systems as well as low, medium and high input conventional systems. A transition period of 24 months was considered in the chosen field before corm planting. Based on the results of an analysis of variance, the effect of experimental treatments was significant on the growth properties of most replacement corms (RC). The results of means comparison revealed that the differences within each organic or conventional system were insignificant but they were found to be considerable between the two OS and CS production systems. Total RC weight per clone and the number of flowering buds per RC in the OS production system were on the average 40% more than that of the CS production system. The amount of mean RC weight for OS and CS was 4.75 and 2.54g, respectively. The percent of RC with weight of less than 5g in the CS production system was higher than that of the OS production system (70 vs. 84%), while the percent of RC in 5-10g (13 vs. 14.5%) and more than 10g (3 vs. 15.7%) categories in the OS production system were more than that of the CS production system. The mean value of flowering buds had a significant correlation with the total RC weights per clone (.58**), mean RC weight (.64**), number of small RC (-0.57**) and number of large corm per clone (.61**). In addition, there was a significant correlation between the mean RC weight with the number of RC per clone (-0.55**), the RC weight per clone (.73**), the number of small RC (-0.89**) and the number of large RC per clone (.81**). Overall, the employment of OS had a significant positive effect on the growth of saffron replacement corms especially on mean corm weight and the number of flowering buds.

In order to study the effects of some fertilizer sources and mother corm weights on qualitative and quantitative traits of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a factorial pot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted at College of Agriculture, University of Birjand during 2014 and 2015. Experimental factors consisted of different fertilizers [Bioaminopalis (3 l.ha-1), humic acid (4 l.ha-1), Yaramila complex (50 kg.ha-1) and control (without fertilizer)] and three mother corm weights included 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12 g. The results showed that the simple effects of different fertilizers were significant (p≤0.01) on leaf number (No.plant-1), fresh weight of leaf (g), leaf dry weight (g), number of daughter corms (No.plant-1), fresh weight of mother corms (g) and Picrocrocin, Safranal and Crocin contents of saffron. The simple effect of corm weight was significant (p≤0.01) on leaf number (No.plant-1), leaf length (cm), fresh weight of leaf (g), leaf dry weight (g), number of daughter corms (No.plant-1), fresh weight of daughter corms (g), daughter corms weight (g), diameter of mother corm (cm), fresh weight of mother corms (g), dry weight of mother corms (g), fresh weight of tunic (g), dry weight of tunic (g). Qualitative and quantitative traits of saffron were not affected by the simple effect of corm weight and fertilizer treatments. Also, the greatest leaf number (No.plant-1), fresh weight and dry weight of leaf (g) and number of daughter corms (No.plant-1) were observed where humic acid was applied with mother corms weighing 10-12 g. But the highest levels of Picrocrocin, Crocin and Safranal were obtained in Bioaminopalis application with 87.41, 250, 32.48 respectively. Therefore application of bio-fertilizers and reducing fertilizer use is an important step towards achieving the principles of sustainable agriculture and reduction of environmental pollution and improvement of saffron quality characteristics.

In order to investigate the effects of different municipal waste compost levels of and maternal corm weights on yield and vegetative characteristics of saffron, an experiment was conducted with a factorial arrangement based on randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station, University of Birjand during the growing season of 2014-2015. The treatments were four levels of municipal waste compost (0, 5, 10 and 20 t.ha-1) and three mother corm weights (0.1- 4, 4.1- 8 and 8.1- 12 g). The traits included the number of flower, fresh weight of flower, stigma and fresh weight of corm with scale, weight and diameter replacement and number of buds. The results showed that the effect of municipal waste compost was significant on total weight corm with scale, diameter of center corm and replacement corm, weight of fresh flower and stigma. The highest corm weight and number of replacement corms were obtained for treatment 10 t. ha-1 compost (21.33 g. plant -1 and 2.33 number, respectively), while the control had the lowest values (with 16.4 g. plant -1 and 1.66 number). The effect of mother corm weight was significant on the vegetative characteristics of saffron. The highest corm weight with scale, diameter of replacement, flower yield and fresh weight of flower and stigma were observed for 8.1-12 g. The most fresh and dry weight of stigma (0.31 and 0.11 g. m -1, respectively) were observed from treatment mother corm weight 8.1-12 g, while the lowest values (0.06 and 0.03 g. m -1) were 0.1- 4g. Interaction between municipal waste compost and corm weight had a significant effect on the weight of fresh flower, sepal, stigma and the number of lateral buds and the highest fresh weight of flower (9.36 g. m-2) and stigma (0.41 g. m-2) were observed for treatment 10 t. ha-1 and 8.1-12g. Generally, the findings of the current study revealed that the use of municipal waste compost (10 t. ha-1) and large mother corms (8/1-12 g) had positive effects on corm growth and flower yield of saffron.

In terms of production and area under cultivation, wheat is the most important crop in Iran. Weeds problem is possibly the mostserious agricultural problems in the wheat growing regions of the world (Kafi et al., 2005). Rye as an annual plant with long stems is frequently seen as weed in wheat fields around our country (Krimi, 2004). Low environmental demands and allelopathic ability of rye accompanied with similar morphology and life cycle to wheat has increased its stability and occupied area in winter wheat fields (Pester et al., 2000). Competition is one of key issues in ecophysiological debates of plant communities. In competition as a type of Interference, weeds compete for light, water and nutrient resources with neighbor crops and thereby affect growth, development and yield of them (Evans et al., 2003). Considering the severe restriction of water resources in most regions of our country, drought stress is the most important stress, affecting crops (Kafi et al., 2009). Both resource availability and environmental conditions affect the result of a competition. Weed competition for water decreases soil water content which could finally causes water stress and reduces weed growth and crop yield. There are few studies about mechanisms of competition for water. Most of these studies have been implemented under controlled conditions. Nevertheless, these studies have led to an insight intothese possible mechanisms of competition for water (Zand et al., 2004).
In order to study the effect of inter and intra-species competition on morphological and growth characteristics of wheat (Triticum aesativum L.)and rye (Secale cereale L.)under drought stress conditions, a pot experiment was conducted in the greenhouse of college of Agriculture at University of Birjand in 2012. The experiment had factorial arrangement based on completely randomized design with three replications. The factors were wheat density (0, 8, 16, 24 plants/pot), rye density (0, 2, 4, 6 plants/pot) and drought stress (irrigation at 20 and 60% moisture depletion of field capacity). Number of leaves and their SPAD index in wheat and rye were measured at the time of spikes emergence of wheat, while plant height, peduncle and cluster length and stem diameter of wheat were measured at 95 days after planting (the end of the growing period).
Results showed when density of wheat and rye increased, height (maximum of 23.51% and 13.39% in wheat and 24.45% and 6.56% in rye respectively), leaf numbers (35.80% and 30.73% in wheat and 71.37% and 31.71% in rye respectively) and SPAD (12% and 11.38% in wheat and 13.75% and 0.38% in rye respectively) were significantly decreased. Drought stress also significantly decreased the height and leaf number of wheat (17.58% and 8.48% respectively) and rye (7.64% and 26.75% respectively) and significantly increased the SPAD index of wheat and rye (20% and 7.78%, respectively). Increasing of drought stress however had not effect on cluster length, significantly decreased the peduncle length (26.03%) and stem diameter (3.49%). When the rye and wheat density increased, length of wheat cluster (maximum of 13.70% and 24.21% respectively), length of wheat peduncle (maximum of 17.39% and 22.72% respectively) and wheat stem diameter (maximum of 11.11% and 18% respectively).
Result totally showed that in drought stress conditions, intra specific competition had just significantly affected on SPAD index, but inter specific completion had significantly affected on both SPAD index and leaf number of wheat and height and leaf number of rye. Simultaneous presence of drought stress and plant competition resulted in severe reduction of these traits with a further reduction in wheat compared to rye. Accordingly, in the wheat fields where rye is considered as an important weed, the damage of this weed is even higher when drought stress occurs and therefore, controlling this weed in water limited conditions is of major importance.

The main objective of this research was to determine indicators of technical and economic water use efficiency in the cultivation of saffron and wheat in the Qaenat region located in the South Khorasan province in Iran), where 50 wheat farms and 48 saffron farms were investigated during 2011 and 2012. For this purpose, the necessary information about farmer’s age and education, crop yield, the area under wheat and saffron cultivation, type of irrigation source, water flow rate and the number and duration of irrigation were collected by using a questionnaire. The results showed that the calculated indicator of water use efficiency was 0.84 and 0.34 kg.m-3 for wheat total biomass and grain and 0.36 and 0.002 kg.m-3 for saffron total biomass and stigma, respectively. Economic water use efficiency was estimated to be 23706.43 and 1836.89 Rials per cubic meter of water use in saffron and wheat production systems, respectively. There was a significant difference between the different ages of saffron farms for economic water use efficiency and the maximum value of this indicator was related to five-year old farms. Education of the farmers and the area under cultivation were identified as factors influencing the studied measures for wheat. Also, the results showed that there is a significant negative correlation between economic water use efficiency and soil salinity.