مریم ظهوریان

The study of water exploitation technology and methods in the ancient civilizations of Elam and Mesopotamia from the second millennium to the end of the first millennium BC is a topic that can help to better understand the technical and social advances of these two great civilizations. In this study, we try to answerquestions such as how these civilizations were able to manage water resources.And what technologies and tools did they use to exploit water resources in social development?to be answered. . In this study, with a comparative and analytical approach, we have investigated the technologies and methods of water supply in that era.Through the study of architectural artifacts, clay tablets and other archaeological evidences, an attempt has been made to provide a clear picture of how water resources are managed to answer the research questions. The results of this study show that the technologies and methods of water resources management in the ancient civilizations of Elam and Mesopotamia indicate the significant advances of these civilizations in the field of engineering and management of natural resources.By using engineering knowledge and designing hydrological structures appropriate to geographical and environmental conditions, these civilizations were able not only tomake the best use of water resources, but also to ensure the survival of human populations in critical periods such as drought and floods.The study of architectural works, clay tablets, and other archaeological evidences indicates the high levelof awareness and ability of the engineers of that era in designing water supply systems and water management.

Old Qaen stands as a prominent city in Quhistan (South Khorasan), having undergone significant transformations during the Islamic period. Although the city is frequently mentioned in historical chronicles, accurate information regarding its ancient location has been sought through archaeological excavations. The analysis of pottery recovered between 2012 and 2016 by Rajab-Ali Labbaf has provided archaeologists with essential data concerning the founding and various historical phases of the old city of Qaen. The objective of this analytical research was to identify the pottery types present in the area, establish the settlement chronology, and examine its connections with other regions. To achieve this, 177 potsherds from the excavations were initially classified, and subsequently, 55 representative pieces were selected for detailed typological and chronological study. Research findings concerning pottery reveal that Qaen was established in the early Islamic centuries and persisted through the mid-Safavid period, with the Seljuk period identified as its most prosperous era. The quality of pottery produced in this region was on par with that of other notable pottery centers in Iran. However, the lack of golden pottery (zarrin fam), silhouette, and enamel (Mina’i) ware points to a shortfall in the expertise of Qaen’s potters regarding these types. Additionally, Qaen has established significant trans-regional links with regions including Khorasan, Sistan, and Jazmurian.

 Qosheh Tut Hill, located in Saleh Abad, North Khorasan, is one of the region’s significant archaeological sites. It lies 12 km from Saleh Abad and 77 km northeast of Torbat-e-Jam, along the road connecting two major cities of Khorasan Razavi. This site was officially registered as a national monument of Iran by the Khorasan Razavi Cultural Heritage Office on July 15, 2003. Notwithstanding this, previous studies have been limited to only preliminary identifications, a comprehensive examination of this topic is lacking. To reconstruct the settlement history of Qosheh Tut Hill, a systematic study of its surface data was deemed necessary. This research employed a structured and statistically grounded methodology covering all areas of the site. A sampling strategy focusing on index samples was adopted, and the study was conducted in three stages: grid mapping, sampling, and documentation of findings. Initially, a preliminary site map was created, dividing the hill into 25×25-meter grids. Selected squares were then sampled, and all available cultural materials were systematically collected, analyzed, photographed, and subjected to typological comparison. The significance of this research lies in its examination of Khorasan’s cultural influences on neighboring regions and its exploration of the area’s role as a hub for cultural interactions. Furthermore, such studies contribute to understanding the continuity of prehistoric and historical cultures in this strategically located and ecologically rich region. 

This research adopts a historical and comparative approach to analyze the Qosheh Tut site. Data collection involved both fieldwork and library research. During the field study, surface samples, particularly pottery, were systematically collected and analyzed. The collected specimens were then classified typologically and chronologically to provide a clearer understanding of the region’s historical and cultural characteristics. As a foundational study, this research not only enhances our understanding of the past but also serves as a basis for future archaeological investigations. 

Analysis of the pottery typology and its comparison with neighboring regions indicate that Qosheh Tut Hill was first settled during the Chalcolithic period as a small village. However, typological evidence from this period is relatively scarce. The site saw extensive habitation during the Bronze Age, when it developed into a larger settlement. Pottery from this period corresponds to various phases of the Bronze Age and shares significant similarities with the Bronze Age cultures of Turkmenistan, particularly Namazgah III and IV. Additionally, evidence of pottery linked to the Balkhi-Marvi culture was identified. During the Iron Age, Qosheh Tut Hill exhibited a continuous sequence of settlement, reaching its peak in terms of population and cultural activity. The Iron Age pottery from the site is the most abundant among all periods and closely resembles cultural artifacts from regions beyond present-day Iran, particularly the Yaz I culture of Turkmenistan. Comparative mapping and typological studies suggest that the prehistoric pottery of this region was significantly influenced by the Yaz culture and the prayer areas of Turkmenistan, followed by the Balkhi pottery tradition of Afghanistan. Furthermore, important cultural connections are evident with interior Iranian sites, including Shahr-e-Sokhteh in the southeast, Gorgan, Bojnourd, and Dargaz in the northeast, Neyshabur in the east, and Tepe Hesar in central Iran. These findings underscore the extensive transcultural interactions that shaped the prehistoric cultural landscape of the region.

The historical context of the city of Birjand in South Khorasan has significant architectural works from the Qajar and Pahlavi periods, which have been carried out until the end of a complete investigation on the motifs left from the Qajar period based on the concept of visual semantics. Based on this, in this research, which is done in a descriptive-analytical way with a historical nature, at first, all the Qajar buildings were identified and photographed by referring to the cultural heritage archives and field visits. Then, all the studied buildings were classified into four categories: gardens, private houses, houses, and schools, and one landmark building was selected from each category. The reasons for the selection were based on the building's index and soundness, the presence of numerous motifs and the non-change of motifs in different periods. Then, based on the approach of visual semantics of each role individually, semiology and etymology were done. Then again, all motifs of a building were analyzed and read meaningfully in their context (gardens, private homes, school houses) and the discourse space of the Qajar period (religious, social and political view) because in this approach only structural classification and semiology of fashion It is not an opinion, but a semantic analysis of motifs based on the viewpoint of the speaker and the discourse of the society. Based on this, it was found that the motifs of the Qajar period in the historical context of Birjand were carved based on the components of the motifs of ancient Iran, and the western motifs are less visible in it. Also, based on the semantics of the motifs and inscriptions obtained, it was found that the religious and social view of this region was based on the view of the Shia religion.

One way of understanding the beliefs ,traditions and even the religious and ideological views of the ancient peoples is the semantic analysis and reading of the motifs remained of this time, motifs that have been semantically transformed for thousands of years and are now meaningless to us. In the meantime, the painted room of Baba Jan Tape remained of Median civilization(700 to 550 BC is one of the places where bricks with geometric motifs are used.The motifs that no one has ever investigated the reasons for depicting them in this room. Accordingly, in this historical-analytic study, using the scienceof semiotics based on Panofsky's view, it has been attempted to answer the main research question which is the reasons for applying these motif in the building and the connection of this type of design with the building’s use and function. Accordingly, by analyzing the motifs at three levels of formology, interpretation and explanation of Panofsky's view, we found that these motifs are divided into cross shape, square shape, circular, checkered, and interlaced squares based on the structural analysis or formology.And at the level of interpretation, each of these motifs also refers to the time, vernal equinox, and circulation of seasons. Finally at the level of explanationand through a comparative study withHasanlu Cup in the discourse context of the Median civilizationwe found that these geometric motifs, which are designed based on a particular numerical system, are related to the sequence and circulation of time and in some way to ritual ceremonies inagricultur

The art industry of locksmithing, like other metal arts in Iran. Is a kind of reflection of the customs. Beliefs and traditions of the people of this land. This art is in a delicate fusion of aesthetics with steel and iron, and finally leads to a thoughtful accompaniment of art and craft. Therefore, it can be understood that we are facing a valuable category that has various visual, formal and aesthetic capacities. The purpose of this research, while categorizing locks and features of form and role, recognizing different capabilities and functions, is to decipher the patterns and traditions and beliefs around them. The main research questions and raised about, this is where the designs of Safavid locks were adopted? What are the formal and conceptual characteristics of the designs used in the locks of the Safavid periods? And to what extent is it related to the doctrinal aspects of the Safavid period? This research is of a fundamental type and is descriptive and analytical in nature. The method of collecting information will be field and library based on description analysis and history.  In this study, an attempt has been made to show that in Safavid era, locking, in addition to the protective aspect (practical), had a ritual aspect and had a direct and close relationship with The Islamic tradition. The mental concepts of the craftsman artist also played a role in a making the locks. Which often contain symbolic information, besides being made based on culture and custo.

One of the most controversial issues in the historical period of Iran is the Parthian rule, which due to the lack of evidence and content with the works of Greek and Roman historians, most scholars of the period of decentralization and sectarian monarchy and or express feudalism. As a result, in this comparative-analytical study, the characteristics of government systems are examined and their compatibility with the archaeological evidence left over from the Parthian period is discussed. Based on this, we first deal with the definitions and characteristics of a simple centralized and decentralized system that have not been studied in any research so far, then examine the characteristics of the tribal, feudal and also federal monarchy systems; Then, by comparative study of the above definitions with the evidence left from this period, we will make a thorough analysis of the nature of Parthian governance. Based on this, it can be said that the existence of large dynasties and its influence on the rule of kings was not limited to the Parthian period and the use of the king's name for semi-independent regions based on the perception and type of government of Roman or Greek historians. Also, by examining the feudal system and conforming to the economic system of the mentioned period, the Parthian system of government had a legislative system and according to the power of the king, the central legislative system acted either in a very centralized or simply decentralized manner. the central legislative system acted either in a very centralized or simply decentralized manner.

Investigation of ancient pottery is considerably important in archaeological studies In addition, studying the ceramics; we can examine their different kinds of regional styles, types and techniques. Since according to Hernik’s classification the Parthian pottery has had a greater diversity and not the same styles were used during this period, investigation and study of the ceramics of this period is essential in order to better understand the local and regional styles of this period. Meanwhile, according to the surviving texts and inscriptions, South Khorasan or the ancient Qahestan has shown to be one of the important Parthian states in eastern Iran. Therefore, in this research, it has been attempted to study the pottery obtained from Mud B mound, one of the typical ancient hills of the Parthian period in South Khorasan. The purpose of the present research, which is conducted using a comparative-analytical method, The answer to the questions raised is: 1- What was the dominant pottery in this area? 2- Which regions have had the most cultural interactions?In this study, initially 85 typical pottery pieces were collected from the surface of Mud B mound during the educational excavation of Birjand University and then the ceramics gathered through this excavation were undergone a typological study according to which the following results were obtained: 1- This mound includes three pottery types, i.e. Lundo, Burnished War and non-glazed plain, among which the plain non-glazed pottery is one of the dominant pottery types of this hill. 2- Chronologically, the examined pottery exhibits a date from the Parthian to the early Sassanid period. 3- Mud B mound had the highest degree of cultural connection with neighboring regions such as Sistan, Baluchistan and the Greater Khorasan.

One of the historic capabilities of Birjand city (East of Iran) is the existence of a large number of historic gardens that, despite the great importance from the perspective of landscape architecture, sufficient attention has not yet been given to the gardens from the viewpoint of landscape planning. One of the newest global approaches to historic gardens is the revival of agricultural and productive capabilities of gardens through methods and approaches called urban agriculture. While urban agriculture encompasses the tangible edible heritage of urban gardens, it also prioritizes engaging civil society in agricultural activities. In urban agriculture, in addition to the owners of the gardens, urban dwellers benefit greatly from the collective gardening in the urban gardens.

This study attempts to identify the strengths and weaknesses of Birjand's historic gardens for the development of urban agriculture, and therefore seeks to answer the following question: Are Birjand's historic gardens appropriate for urban agricultural development?

The research method in this study is analytical-descriptive and main data were collected from bibliographic databases and through interviews with garden managers, experts, consultants, and some gardeners about 11 historic gardens. In addition, field studies in historic gardens have been conducted by the authors. Questionnaires were also used to collect the data including physical facilities of gardens, agricultural production activities in gardens, agricultural and horticultural objectives, marketing of horticultural products, and agricultural economics.

The results show that a large part of the area of Birjand's historic gardens is dedicated to agricultural activities. According to the findings of this study, historic gardens have the potential to create opportunities for public participation in the production, training, and consumption of agricultural and horticultural products. A combination of different goals, whether commercial, educational, social, therapeutic, or environmental, can be the key to the success of place-making of the historic gardens through urban agriculture. According to this strategy, the historic garden can be a place for interaction between different groups and users. Therefore, the formation of Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes (CPULs) depends on the strategy of public participation and involving citizens in the re-planning of historic gardens for the development of the edible public green space so that all gardens, whether private, public, or endowed, would be places for the presence and participation of citizens in the development of urban agriculture.

Woven patterns in the context and context of Iranian carpet are symbolic and visual language elements are beyond the decorative role and are hidden in the meaning of the concept because Iranian weavers based on their beliefs and aspirations, and on the carpets He writes. In the meantime, one of the drawings that have an abstract and very common conception of the effects of ancient civilizations is the symbol of the snake in various forms, which has been seen over the centuries over Islamic rugs. But what matters is that over time, with the changing of cultures, religions, policies, and so on, the meaning of the symbols has evolved and, at any given time, according to their historical context, meaning Get it. Therefore, the symbol of the snake is repeatedly expressed in different periods of time, such as prehistoric, historical, and Islamic, with different meanings; sometimes a lullaby of positive and sometimes a negative role in a manner pre-historic and Elamite with a role Positive and goddess species, but with the arrival of Zoroastrianism, it is depicted with a negative role, but once again it manifests itself positively in the religion of Mithra's, and this process has witnessed a change of meaning up to the Islamic period. But what has been suggested in this study is that in the religion of Islam, as the religion of Jesus Christ and Jews, a snake is thought to be negative, so how can this role be used in Islamic rugs and its adaptation to the religious belief of Islam is the nature and meaning. forgave? Accordingly, in this article, we tried to study the works of the remnants of the past as well as the Persian-Islamic classical texts and the Holy Quran through an analytical-comparative method to understand the meaning and meaning of the symbol of the snake in the carpets Islam and how to accept this element in the Islamic religious context.

Ancient architecture is the manifestation of artistic patterns and has been beautifully designed with it. Although these patterns may look striking at first sight , but there is a secret meaning in them, and figuring this meaning out can explain why such patterns have been created and used in ancient architecture . This knowledge can link us up with the ancestor’s beliefs and worldview. In this respect Achaemenid - known as the largest Persian Empire - has vast Architectural monuments such as Pasargadae , Susa and Persepolis which are full of meaningfull patterns , since these monuments were built and designed at the command of the kings of that time and their beliefs as society’s highly valuable political and religious models . Hence, different ideas have been presented by researchers regarding the Achaemenid cosmological point of view, i. e. their religion and ideological perspective , none of which was definitively expressed. Therefore, a study on the motifs remained of the Achaemenid civilization can remove the ambiguities in this regard to a large extent. Accordingly , in the present research, the authors seek to answer the following questions: To which theory of Achaemenid religion do the symbolic motifs created on the Achaemenid architecture correspond? Can this theory be regarded more probable than others? Therefore , in this research, which is based on an analytical-comparative method and has been conducted in the form of a library study, eight motifs from three sites, i.e. Pasargadae , Susa and Persepolis, were identified , categorized and then semantically analyzed. After the comparative analysis and concept analysis of the motifs, it was revealed that polytheistic worship with centrality of the worship of Ahura Mazda and the influence of the religious ideology of Mesopotamian and pre - Aryan (Empire Elamite) civilization have been prevalent in the Achaemenid religious view, which is in accordance with this theory that the Achaemenids have been henotheistic .

Elam was an ancient Pre-Iranian civilization centered in the far West and Southwest of what is now modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a), along with the later Akkadian elamtu, and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East in classical literature, Elam was also known as Susiana, which is a name derived from its capital, Susa.
Elam was part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role during the Persian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally considered a language isolate unrelated to the much later arriving Persian and Iranic languages. In accordance with geographical and archaeological matches, some historians argue that the Elamites comprise a large portion of the ancestors of the modern day Lurs, whose language, Luri, split from Middle Persian.
The Elamites practiced polytheism. Knowledge about their religion is scant, but, according to Cambridge Ancient History, at one time they had a pantheon headed by the goddess Kiririsha/Pinikir.Other deities included In-shushinak and Jabru, lord of the underworld. According to Cambridge Ancient History, "this predominance of a supreme goddess is probably a reflexion from the practice of matriarchy which at all times characterized Elamite civilization to a greater or lesser degree.
Searching and exploring ancient and ancient religions in every nation and has led to the explanation of the biological, cultural and anthropological characteristics of those peoples, and the symbolism of the remaining works has contributed greatly to this. One of these symbols is the role of the snake in the ancient Islamic civilization. The ancient Elam is a land name in the southwest of Iran, which covers the Khuzestan, Fars, and parts of Kerman, Lorestan and Kurdistan provinces during the third to the first millennium BC, according to the geopolitical divisions. One of these characteristics of the Elamites was the special respect for the female element and the assignment of a special place among the gods, this superiority to the extent that the goddesses usually rank top in the list of gods and in political and social affairs Women also had the opportunity to have high ranking officials, even royalties, as the ancient Elamite community should be considered as a female-dominated society. One of these characteristics was the particular respect that the Elamites always had for the magic, the forces of the underworld and the female element, and another feature of the worship of the snake. It can be said that in addition to its positive aspect, which is known as the symbol of fertility, the snake has a negative aspect and a symbol of incapacity and seduction. In this article, we try to clarify the nature and identity of the serpent in the culture and religion of Elam by introducing the remains of this ancient civilization, such as inscriptions, figurines, dramatic designs and ... having a role of the serpent.

Mortuary practices are the main source of study on the ancient cults and religions. Burials، as a part of material and intangible heritage of a society، have their own characteristics in different regions. Since ancient inhumation traditions originate from the beliefs of the past societies، their study could be useful for reconstruction of cultural evolutionary process of them. Equally، investigation on them is the best way to determine the religious and cultural interactions among neighboring civilizations. In southern Makran، new archaeological surveys indicate that special stone burials، called cairn burials، are abundant during the Parthian era، very similar to those already identified in Kerman، Hormuzgan، Fars، northern coasts of Persian Gulf (Bushehr region)، Pakistani Makran and southern shores of Oman Sea. In the Baluchistan region، these graves are called Dambi which refer to inhumation of old alive persons. In fact، an abundant samples of them were discovered among which، the largest and most significant site is “Damba-Koh” located in Bahu Kalat plain. Their form are characterized by semi-deep pits covered by a hump of stone pebbles. The present paper tries to study and classify these graves، to detect their traces in anterior periods as well as to evaluate their chronology through typological and comparative analysis of pottery، found on the newly identified cairn sites. The forms of the cairns are divided into three general groups including square، circular and oval shapes. Structurally، they have been constructed by two various 1- Simple stony irregular graves 2- Regular graves with walls and doors All of the graves have built with stones available around the sites. Only a few samples have remained intact and their roofs have been mostly collapsed during the time. In the case of chamber shaped cairns، they have been constructed without using any mortar. Some of them have entrance doors، between 50-70 cm wide and 50-70 cm high. The potsherds discovered from these cairns are generally divided into 3 groups: the first group is usually monochrome or occasionally biochrome painted ware. Regarding their manufacturing techniques، they have a middle to fine paste and the surface of the vessels are covered by red to buff slips. Geometric (zigzag and ladder lined) motives have been used for decoration of the pottery. The second pottery type، which called Londo ware، is a kind of painted pottery on which animal motives (like horse and ibex motives) are abundant as well as geometric motives. The third category of pottery is fine orange ware with very smooth surface including cups and long chalices that some scholars consider an Indian origin for them. By providing new archeological evidence including classification of burial structures and pottery typology، the present study conclude that، at the moment، Parthian dating، already proposed for this type of graves، is also confirmed by our findings. But an earlier chronology could be attested by excavating some cairn burials in the region.