مصطفی نصیری

Durkheim has considered crime as a "social reality". In Durkheim's thought, crime is a matter arising from the collective conscience changing with the passage of time and space with a special mechanism. Therefore, in his view, changing the realm of criminal behavior is a "normal" issue, and not their inherent characteristic. Simultaneously, in this approach, crime is an independent entity beyond the individual wills in case of members of the society that finds meaning under "social categories". This view guarantees the determination and stability of social reality that however, has some characteristics in terms of moral content and investigation method deeply rooted in Kant in the approach of Durkheim. Therefore, the lack of attention toward such foundations has provided the case for misinterpretations of sociologist's ideas, accordingly, incorrect analysis of his opinions,has necessitated a reconsideration in this regard. This research, in order to investigate Durkheim's special perception, as a neo-Kantian sociologist regarding social realities, especially crime, with the analytical method, is presenting the most relevant manifestations of Kant's thought in Durkheim's and the way of evolution and manifestation of his thought in Durkheim's views has been investigated. The outcome indicated that Durkheim, inspired by Kant's, tried to propose a new model for the study of ethics in modern societies by applying some reforms. Contrary to Kant, Durkheim never considers issues to be part of the structure of human nature as fixed and unchanging, but considered in the form and structure of people's thoughts arising from the content by the spirit of society. Considering the issues as social in Durkheim's thought, on the one hand, guarantees the stability of morality and the preservation of its totality, on the other hand, justifies the moral differences of societies throughout history and in all over the world. Therefore, in Durkheim's view, morality emerges from the collective conscience of society, which really exists, but may undergo alterations in the collective conscience. The condition of morality in Kant's thought, which was the existence of the absolute ideas of God and the immortality of the soul, was reduced to more abstract matters such as the collective will in Durkheim's regards, as the rule of recognition of the state. According to Durkheim, by identifying the social and moral realities, the state presents a single narrative of acceptable behaviors and considers them contrary to the cases as crimes. Philosophically speaking, this approach is encountered with the challenge not providing a criterion for judging the behavior of citizens and considering them as crimes. Consequent theories of criminology, on one side, doubt the function of the state in identifying collective realities due to the existence of different moral and behavioral attitudes in society, on the other side accept Durkheim's social reality approach as a basis for marginalizing different tendencies as criminals which are contrary to the social reality determined by the state.

The study delves into the fundamental aspect of legal systems—the foundation of law—and its crucial role in shaping legal norms. Grounded in the unique sociocultural context of contemporary Iran, the research embarks on a comprehensive analysis of the interplay between legal perspectives and religious knowledge. While conventional discussions on the foundation of law often revolve around legal theories, this study, informed by the prominence of religion and its influence on Iranian society, investigates the role of "religious epistemology" as the guiding force behind legal doctrines.

Research Question:

The pivotal inquiry centers on the degree of autonomy governments possess in promulgating laws and whether there exist predetermined guidelines and criteria governing the enactment of laws. In essence, the research explores the foundational basis upon which legal systems are established and the factors influencing the imposition of legal norms by the state. This prompts a critical examination of the autonomy of governments in lawmaking and the need for compliance with predetermined standards to confer credibility and legitimacy upon enacted laws.

Research Hypothesis:

Two distinct perspectives emerge in response to the aforementioned question:     On one hand, proponents of the natural law school argue that laws must align with natural, rational, and just principles, with human beings serving as discoverers or interpreters of these inherent laws. Legitimacy and obligation, according to this view, are rooted in the congruence of laws with reality and justice, regardless of governmental recognition.
     On the other hand, adherents of the positivist perspective contend that legal rules are mere products of human will and governmental imposition. In this paradigm, the legitimacy and obligation of laws are solely contingent upon governmental endorsement, rendering the alignment with reality or justice irrelevant. The hypothesis posits that the clash between these perspectives has given rise to two prominent legal schools: natural law and positivism.

Methodology & Framework, if Applicable:

The research employs a comparative analytical approach, juxtaposing the natural law and positivist viewpoints to assess their impact on the foundation of law within the Iranian legal context. Drawing on both legal philosophy and Islamic jurisprudence, the study navigates the divergent paths taken by legal scholars who either lean towards integrating Islamic principles with natural law or assert the primacy of positivism. The methodology involves a critical review of legal literature and a nuanced examination of the evolving discourse in Iranian legal philosophy. The framework of analysis encompasses an exploration of the intersections and tensions between these two schools of thought, emphasizing their implications for the Iranian legal system.
     This article endeavors to contribute to the nuanced understanding of the foundation of law in the Iranian legal landscape, shedding light on the philosophical underpinnings that shape the enactment, legitimacy, and obligation of laws. The exploration of these themes within the context of natural law and positivism offers valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of legal thought in Iran and its intersection with religious epistemology.

The culmination of this investigation into the foundation of law in the Iranian legal landscape yields three predominant perspectives that intersect and clash within the broader context of religious epistemology.
     The first perspective challenges the role of religion as the foundation of law, emphasizing the incongruence between modern societal values and legal principles derived from religion. It questions the legitimacy of a legal system rooted in religious doctrine, suggesting that legal norms should exclusively stem from human reason and societal norms. However, this perspective faces theoretical weaknesses, particularly in its reluctance to engage with the philosophical foundations of the New Western thought.
     The second perspective, while recognizing the significant role of religion in the Iranian legal system, seeks to reinterpret fundamental rights such as freedom and equality within the framework of religious doctrines. Though practically similar to the first perspective, it attempts a theoretical reconciliation by extracting modern legal principles from religious foundations. Nevertheless, it faces profound theoretical challenges, lacking a robust theoretical basis within Western philosophy.
     The third perspective, chosen by the author, confronts the foundational principles of New Western philosophy and critically examines the conditions under which modern rights, such as autonomy, can emerge. This perspective delves into the mechanism through which religion acts as the source of legal principles and analyzes its relationship with modern rights. In this approach, the coexistence of reason and religion is emphasized, with human access to universal truths facilitated by both intellect and faith. This perspective places a renewed emphasis on the intrinsic role of Sharia as the foundation of law, tackling practical challenges and reconciling the clash between reason, societal norms, and religion in the realm of law.

In conclusion, the inquiry into the foundation of law in Iran, with a focus on religious epistemology, brings to light the complexity of perspectives within the Iranian legal discourse.
     The examination of three distinct approaches highlights the ongoing struggle to reconcile the relationship between law and religion. While the first two perspectives grapple with theoretical and practical challenges in aligning religious doctrines with modern legal principles, the third perspective seeks a harmonious coexistence of reason and faith. Emphasizing the intrinsic role of Sharia as the bedrock of legal principles, this perspective proposes nuanced solutions to the practical challenges posed by the evolving dynamics of society, demonstrating a dynamic synthesis of religious and modern legal thought. This study contributes to the broader understanding of the intricate interplay between law, religion, and philosophy in shaping legal frameworks, specifically within the unique context of the Iranian legal system.

Real-time hybrid simulation (RTHS) is a form of testing where the physical component of structure communicate with numerical model which simulates the behavior of the rest of the structure. Interface forces between the experimental and computational substructure are imposed by an actuator. The resulting displacement and velocity of the experimental substructure are fed back to the computational engine to determine the interface forces applied to the computational and experimental substructures for the next time step. In this paper, the RTHS technique is used to conduct experiments with a numerically simulated structure and physically tested tuned liquid damper (TLD). One very important factor which causes instability in RTHS is the actuator's inability to perform the commands from the simulator in real-time. In RTHS, an actuator dynamic is approximated by a pure time-delay, and the time-delay in the closed loop system causes inaccuracy results or even instability. Therefore, Delayed Differential Equation (DDE) is used to determine the critical time-delays depending on the TLD parameters. Then, the compound stability condition is investigated for a general case and the results show that the mass ratio has a lower limit for low delays and upper limit for high delays to remain stable. As frequency and amplitude ratios increase, the margin of stability for the mass ratio increases.

One of the distinguishing features of Islam's criminal policy is that it considers human’s life based on truth and purposeful. Allameh Tabataba’i believes these two features are obtained through the interaction of real and conventional matters. The distinction between real and conventional matters and the relationship between the two has some important effects on different fields, especially the criminal policy. Considering crime as one of the social conventionals  besides its application for the philosophical analysis of crime  provides a relatively clear criterion and basis for criminalization in the criminal policy of Islam. Using this approach to analyze crime helps to provide a firm basis for justifying criminalization, and at the meantime paying attention to social developments. Criminal policy, according to Allameh's view, considers Shariah’s (the Divine law) conventionals as a criterion and measure of criminal policy strategies in the social validity of crime, while taking into account social developments and ensuring the movement of people. Shari'ah prevents the interventions in which the criminalization conventionals are in conflict with the Shariah’s principles; and on the other hand, it provides some criteria and measures for cases of criminalization in which there is no apparent [Divine] command. The described mechanism prevents the deviation of criminal policy while ensures having a dynamic perspective on criminal policy.

Todays, various treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and hyperthermia are used to treat cancer. The best treatment for cancer is to accurately control the distribution of temperature in the damaged tissue, which has been the subject of many studies in recent years. Due to the increased temperature in cancer treatment, and especially in hyperthermia, the healthy tissue adjacent to the damaged tissue also disappears and results in bad consequences. In this paper, the optimal laser control for cancer therapy has been done. According to the non-Fourier behavior of temperature transitions in laser treatments, the time-dependent transient temperature distribution in one-dimensional mode, along with the heat of metabolism and perfusion of blood, using the Pence heat transfer equation, is analyzed. In order to minimize the damage to the healthy tissues adjacent to the damaged tissue, the objective function includes the difference between the calculated thermal damage with the desired thermal damage is defined. Therefore, the thermal flux value is optimized as an optimal control problem, and the lowest and most useful value is obtained. Finally, the results of the numerical solution to this problem are extracted and shown for triangular thermal flux and square heat pulses.

Under the rule stipulated in Article 1210 of the Civil Code, minors who have reached puberty can be allowed to leave the custody of their parents and guardians and continue their lives independently before mentally mature. It is clear that such a rule will involve a lot of damage for minors. Now the question is if in the light of principle of harm, a step can be taken to protect children more and so limit the scope of this legal ruling? In this article, the author is trying to provide an appropriate answer to this question by relying on some jurisprudential opinions and rules and legal ideas so that the interests of minors were better considered.

This research has been done using documents and library resources and descriptive-analytical method.

Leaving a child out of parental custody before reaching mentally mature is against the goals of care and education and can cause irreparable damage to the child first and then to the society. But unfortunately, due to the interpretation of Article 1210 of the Civil Code, there is a possibility of minors leaving custody early and causing such injuries to them. Therefore, before the legislative reform, it should be thinked about the interpretation and implementation of the law in order to prevent such a situation in the family and society.

Currently, based on some jurisprudential opinions as well as the principle of harm, it is necessary to consider the continuation of custody of children until they reach the mentally mature stage.

Bacterial mosaic of wheat is caused by the gram positive bacterium Clavibacter tessellarius. The symptoms of the disease are uniformly distributed small chlorotic spots with mosaic pattern on the entire leaf surface resemble those symptoms of nutrient deficiencies and some viral diseases, and it may be difficult to determine. Due to the seed-borne nature of the disease, use of healthy and certified pathogen free seeds is the most important strategy for managing this disease. The wheat bacterial mosaic has been reported in wheat fields in several provinces of Iran and it seems to be widespread in different wheat growing areas. In order to better understand the disease, its various aspects including the symptoms, pathogen biology and its host ranges, and management of the disease are reviewed in this article.

Hardware-In-the-Loop (HIL) is a kind of simulation in which an actual component of a closed-loop control system is tested within computer-based real-time simulation of the rest of the system. In a conventional HIL simulation, the hardware is an Electronic Control Unit (ECU) in which electronic control signals are communicated between the hardware and the software. But, HIL simulation of a mechanical component, within a closed-loop control system, requires additional sensors and actuators named transfer systems. The transfer systems are used to connect the software and hardware parts. The HIL simulation can achieve unstable behavior or inaccurate results due to unwanted time-delay dynamic of the transfer systems. In this paper, a test bench is implemented for the hardware-in-the-loop simulation of the fuel control unit (FCU) of a gas turbine engine. The FCU is an electro-hydraulic actuator of the fuel control system. In a real engine, the FCU contains a miniature gear-type liquid-fuel pump which is driven at a fraction of the engine rotor speed mechanically by gears. In the HIL simulation, the engine is simulated numerically and an electric motor is employed to drive the pump of the FCU. The real-time simulation of the gas turbine engine thermodynamic model is implemented on an industrial personal computer with an input/output board in connection with the electro-hydraulic system. There is time-delay in the forward path of the fuel control system due to the use of flowmeter for measuring the outlet flow rate of the FCU in HIL simulation. According to extensive experimental works, the AC motor’s lag dynamics has no considerable effect on the HIL testing, and the flowmeter is the only additional transfer system of which the dynamic effect needs to be mitigated. The results show instability of the hardware-in-the-loop simulation due to unwanted time-delay of the flowmeter. Therefore, a model-based predictor is designed for time-delay compensation of the flowmeter. The consistency of the experimental real-time simulation and off-line simulation shows the applicability of the presented method for mitigating the effect of unwanted dynamic of the transfer system in the HIL simulation.

Increasing trade relations in today's world on the one hand, and the importance of the role of commitment and expertise in the business world on the other hand; highlights the need to pay attention to the position of commercial agencies and their duties. In this research, His duties in jurisprudence, Iranian regulations, and English law are examined.

This article is based on descriptive-analytical method and library method and fish-taking method have been used to collect information.

Despite the fact that in jurisprudence and regulations, the obligations of the commercial agent to a third party have not been considered so far, a framework of duties can be drawn for him. Ethical considerations: Attempts have been made to fully observe the ethical principles of research in this article.

Regardless of the duties that may be imposed on the agent by the agreements between, duties such as good faith, warranty of authority, observance of trusteeship and confidentiality can also be considered for him in jurisprudence and legal system in Iran and Britain. At the same time in jurisprudence based on general rules; representative of delinquency, will be liable to a third party if not ratified by the client. In Iranian law and British law, the commercial representative has several instances, each of which has obligations to a third party, all of which will be studied.

Dynamic behavior of a horizontally supported Jeffcott-rotor system vial four electromagnetics poles is investigated. The magnetic force has a highly nonlinear relation to the control current and the air gap in the active magnetic bearing. The nonlinearities due to the centrifugal force, electromagnetic force, and the rotor weight are considered in the rotor model. The lateral oscillation of the rotor is controlled using a state feedback control system. The vibration of the rotor is modeled by a second order nonlinear ordinary differential equations with quadratic and cubic nonlinearities. The oscillatory characteristics of the considered system is investigated using the multiple time scales perturbation method assuming weak nonlinearity and soft excitation. Numerical simulations are carried out to validate the accuracy of the analytical results. The results show high efficiency of the applied controller velocity gain in forcing the considered nonlinear system to respond as a linear one with a single periodic attractor.

The use of corrugated-web has been considered due to the increase in off-plane stiffness and its buckling strength in the design and construction of deep beams. In this study, the performance of a moment resistant connections with reduced beam section (RBS) beam and trapezoidal corrugated web were investigated under cyclic loading. The variable parameters in the constructed models are defined as the corrugated web angle and the RBS parameters. Two specimens were made with corrugated sheet angle of 45 and 30 degrees. Also, in another sample, the RBS characteristics of the beam wing were changed in accordance with the design criteria. The AISC cycle loading protocol was used for testing and a maximum of 40 cycles were loaded until connection failure. The results show the stability of the specimens and their acceptability according to the regulations and no instability was observed in the hysteresis curves up to the point of failure of connections. According to the results of the experiments, by reducing the corrugated web angle, the bending capacity of the connection is reduced by about 10% and the amount of energy absorption is reduced by about 27%. Based on the observations as well as the recorded deformations, in all three specimens the panel zone showed linear behavior.

In the networked control system, time delay and data dropout can degrade the system performance or even cause instability. Predictive control is one of the effective methods to reduce the effect of time delay and data dropout in networked control systems. In the proposed predictive control method, the control data is predicted as long as it covers the time delay and data dropout in the network, and the estimation of state variables is performed using the Kalman filter. By sending a package containing the predicted control data to the actuator and selecting the appropriate control data, the desired control performance of the system can be achieved. In this paper, the networked control system is considered as a switching system with an arbitrary switching signal. A criterion for evaluating the stability of the closed-loop system with time delay and data dropout is presented based on the theory of switching systems. Time delay and data dropout are selected as switching parameters and a subset of switching dynamic systems is created in the discrete state space. By providing the Lyapunov function for all subsets and solving matrix inequalities, the stability of the system can be investigated. The simulation results show the effect of data dropout on the stability of the system by considering the time delay in the forward and feedback channels.

The bacterial mosaic induced by Clavibacter tessellarius is one of the wheat seed-borne diseases that causes mosaic and chlorotic leaf spots on infected plants. The disease has previously been reported in a few regions within Iran. There is still no information on the disease's prevalence and distribution in the major wheat-growing areas of southern Iran. The disease may have gone unnoticed in part due to its mild symptoms and resemblance to those caused by viruses and certain non-infectious wheat diseases. This study aimed to determine the occurrence and distribution of wheat bacterial mosaic in wheat fields in southern Iran.

Between 2019 and 2020, surveys in wheat fields in four southern Iranian provinces, including Fars, Khuzestan, Kerman, and Bushehr were conducted, and 192 plant samples with symptoms resembling the bacterial mosaic were collected. Bacteria were isolated and purified using semi-selective media, and Gram-positive isolates were selected using Gram staining and KOH solubility tests. The isolates were identified using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with Clavibacter-specific primer pair CMR16F1/CMR16R1, as well as their phenotypic and pathogenicity characteristics. Additionally, a fragment of the gyrB gene from the representative isolates was amplified by PCR using primer pair 2F/4R. The PCR products were purified and directly sequenced. The obtained sequences were aligned, trimmed, and compared to those of related strains in the GenBank using the BLAST search method. A phylogenetic tree based on the gyrB sequences was constructed using the MEGAX software employing the neighbor-joining method.

In total, 400 bacterial isolates were obtained. Based on positive PCR results with specific primers for the genus Clavibacter along with the pathogenicity test on wheat, and the phenotypic and biochemical characteristics, 61 isolates were identified as C. tessellarius. In ten representative isolates, a ~530 bp fragment of the gyrB gene was amplified by PCR. The gyrB gene partial sequences were edited and deposited in GenBank under the accession numbers MZ014474–MZ01483. A BLAST search confirmed that all ten isolates shared the highest nucleotide identity (98.8% to 99.5%) with their corresponding sequences in C. tessellarius strains in GenBank. In the phylogenetic tree, these isolates with C. tessellarius strains from GenBank were clustered in a clade distinct from Clavibacter species and subspecies of Clavibacter michiganensis.

C. tessellarius was isolated from 53 out of 192 wheat fields (27.60%), exhibiting bacterial mosaic symptoms. The Fars, Khuzestan, Kerman, and Bushehr provinces had disease incidences of 35.7% (30 infected farms out of 84 sampled farms), 30.55%, 22.7%, and 7.1%, respectively, indicating the relatively widespread occurrence of the disease in these provinces. To our knowledge, the wheat bacterial mosaic is reported for the first time in the provinces of Khuzestan, Kerman, and Bushehr, and its occurrence in other parts of the country would not be unexpected.

Securitization is a financial instrument, in which Assets are generally transferred in three different methods; Assignment, Novation and Sub-Participation (the latter is used in common law systems). A comparative study among these  Legal Frameworks shows that regardless of the method used for transferring assets in securitization, it should be accomplished in a manner that removes to the extent practicable, these assets from the estate of the selling company in the event of its bankruptcy, which can be achieved by isolating the source of payments and insuring that the transfer of the assets from the Originator to the SPV cannot be interfered, which often referred to as creating a “true sale” of the receivables. On the other hand, Factoring Companies, which are bank-credit institutions, has the primary objective of providing liquidity to traders and funding them through the purchase of their short-terms claims are exposed to cash reduction and liquidity risks due to such activities, causing them to seek funding sources. Thus to study the implementation of securitization on receivables arising from factoring operations as a funding source, it is necessary to consider the different approaches of Legislation in limited or unlimited determination of convertible assets and other characteristics determined for such assets. However, the practice of most developed countries is based on non- restricting these assets and assigning it to the will of the parties, provided that such assets meet all the necessary requirements for securitization.

Hardware-in-the-loop simulation is an effective approach for testing the electronic controller of a closed-loop control system within a computer-based real-time simulation of the rest of the system. In this paper, the pitch attitude hold mode controller of an aircraft vehicle is tested using hardware-in-the-loop simulation. A computer is used for real-time simulation of flight, and an electronic board is employed for controller implementation. The controller and the simulator are connected using a network protocol. The hardware-in-the-loop simulation can achieve unstable behavior or inaccurate results due to the time-delay of network connection. The maximum allowable delay bound in networked connection is derived using the method of delayed differential equations. The sufficient conditions for the stability of linear time-delay systems are given. The proof makes use of Lyapunov–Krasovskii functional and the condition is expressed in term of linear matrix inequalities. Therefore, a polynomial-based predictor is designed for the time-delay compensation of network connection. The consistency of the experimental real-time simulation and off-line simulation shows the applicability of the presented method for mitigating the effect of time-delay in the networked hardware-in-the-loop simulation. Also, the uncertainty of the model due to stability and control derivatives are considered for analyzing the stability of the networked hardware-in-the-loop simulation.

In order to understand the concept of crime, It is necessary to refer to foundations of legal systems. Anthropology is one of the areas of studies that has a bond with criminal law. David Hume as one of the most influential philosophers of the Enlightenment, Has introduced a new approach to humans. This new perception of the humans and the quality of acquiring knowledge had important effect on other knowledges especially ethics. Hume denies the role of reason in ethics definition and regards the rules related to justice and legal order as the result of historical processes and experiences. Following Hume's Thoughts by His followers, had Sustainable effects on the concept of crime. by denouncing metaphysical and rational definitions of ethics by Hume crime definition turned towards utilitarianism. Utilitarianism in Bentham appeared with a quantitative approach and with the definition of crime based on pleasure and eagerness. This approach was modified by Mill's "harm principle" as a criterion of criminalization. This article pursues the conceptual evolution of crime by Bentham and Mill under the ethical views of Hume. Crime in this approach is not discovered rather it is created. Traditions and experiences guide humams in this direction.

Real-time hybrid simulation (RTHS) is a kind of simulation where an experimental component of a structure is tested within a numerical model describing the remainder of the system. In this paper, a multi-story structure is partitioned into numerical and experimental substructures, and vibration behavior of the experimental stories are evaluated within the real-time simulation of the rest of the system. An electro-hydraulic actuator is employed to apply static and inertial forces to the experimental structure due to the forces calculated by the numerical substructure. An actuator dynamic is approximated by a pure time-delay, and the time-delay in the closed loop of simulation may causes inaccuracy results or even instability. Thus, the approach of delay differential equation (DDE) modelling is used to determine the dependence of the critical delay on the parameters of the system. The results demonstrate the influence of non-dimensional parameters and partitioning effects in stability of the hybrid simulation.

The temperature distribution in the laser-irradiated biological tissue is investigated considering heat convection. The first- and the second-degree burn times are predicted using estimation of thermal damage. A non-Fourier equation of bio-heat transfer based on dual phase lag model is employed. The transport behavior of laser light in the tissue is regarded as highly absorbed and effects of the phase lag times on thermal response and thermal damage are explored considering different heat convection coefficients. The Laplace transform with discretization technique and also using boundary conditions, a set of algebraic equations in Laplace domain is generated which are solved by numerical Laplace inverse transform. The results show that the highly absorbed laser light in the tissue plays an important role in the burned skin time. Also, convective heat transfer boundary condition on the surface provides different results, even by considering the natural convection on the surface, and the first- and the second-degree burns are postponed at least 0.02 second.

Factoring is a method of financing which typically accelerates the process of receiving funds for short-term claims. Within this mechanism the supplier of goods or services on credit terms may sell its claims to a factor at a discounted price. while in most countries it is the assignment of receivables that provides the underlying legal basis for factoring transactions, the procedures whereby such assignments are effected and the rules which govern the different aspects of them differ considerably, , to reduce such uncertainties and to promote international trade, the UNIDROIT adopted the Convention on International Factoring (“Ottawa Convention”). As a result of its innovation in giving choice to the factor in performing at least two out of the four common factoring functions, (unlike the traditional factoring), the legal nature of international factoring transactions governed by this convention, is not always limited to the institution of assignment of entitlements.

Discretion is one of the concepts which has been prominent as a result of arriving empirical studies into criminal justice. Discretion is a set of powers that authorities on criminal justice utilize them in order to perform their duties. Such phenomenon often occurs because of legal shortcomings or legislative vagueness and sometimes through crossing the law borders despite its existense. Discretion is available in different phases of criminal process, ranging from the police entrance to implementaion of court orders. One of the issues that the criminal procedure act of 1392 only has been asserted its basic principles and judges have a relative discretion towards them is Criminal Warrants exept in detection. Although discretion is a neutral concept, it can bring about various positive and negative consequences for ciminal justice agencies. Drawing on qualitative method and deep interviews with a group of judges, this paper tries to study the concept of discretion. The finding in this paper is that judges actively use this discretion, which has lead to various, and sometimes conflicting, warrants and bails for the same crimes, which in turn can cause disorder and prevent justice from perfoming for the same charges. Amending the legislations, considering the discretion in the process of training the judges, and improving the regulatory mechanisms are considered as the possible ways for managing the discretion.

Electroconvulsive therapy is one of the treatment methods، and knowledge and attitude toward it، despite of its useful effects on treatment of mental disorders، is flawed even among medicine and nursing staffs. Since the main aim of each teaching approach is to increase the level of learner''s knowledge and attitude، and a well as traditional teaching methods like giving lecture those are common nowadays، can''t alone fulfill student’s need، hence this study aimed to compare the effect of electroconvulsive therapy education through lecture and electronic methods on nursing students’ knowledge and attitude. This quasi-experimental study was conducted among 40 nursing students at Busheher University of Medical Sciences in 2013. In addition، students were selected with census method and randomly divided into control and intervention groups. Control group was trained by lecture method while intervention group was taught by electronic method with compact disk (CD). Before and 2 weeks after the intervention، related information was collected by researcher-made questionnaire، and then data was analyzed by SPSS19 software through calculation of frequency، mean، standard deviation، t-test، and X2 tests. According to the results، knowledge and attitude were promoted significantly in both groups (P<0. 05). In the experimental group، the mean score for knowledge increasing was 10. 55±3. 97، and it was 7. 55±4. 40 in the lecture group; that showed a significant difference (P=0. 03). Moreover، the mean score for attitude increasing was 2. 05±4. 96 and 1. 95±5. 82 in both control and experimental groups، respectively;، that showed no significant difference. Based on research results، electronic education seems more effective than lecture on students’ knowledge، therefore، according to the benefits of electronic education، using and planning of this method should be recommended.

This quasi-experimental study, with the aim of comparing the effect of educating anatomy through lecture and compound methods on medicine students’ learning and knowledge retention, was conducted to 60 medicine students at Busheher University of Medical Sciences in 2013. Students were selected through census method and randomly divided into control group (instructed by lecture) and experimental group (instructed by blending lecture and work in small groups), and after pretestthey received education for 8 sessions during 2 month. Then, they took the post-test and after 4 weeks the retention test. To collect data, an achievement test was used which evaluated students’ knowledge and meaningful learning in limb anatomy course. Subsequently, data were analyzed through independent t-tests, chi-square and repeated measure ANOVA with SPSS19 software. According to results, the mean and standard deviation of exam scores in the lecture group in pretest, posttest and retention test were respectively 11.87±2.48, 25.69±2.49 and 21.21±3.37 and were 15.30±5.4, 32.21±2.81 and 26.72±2.84 in the compound method group. Moreover, the differences of mean scores were statistically significant within both groups (P<0.05); the mean of exam scores increased from pretest to posttest in experimental group (16.90±5.18), and control group (13.81±3.12) showed statistically significant differences (P<0.05, t= 2/934). Based on the results, both methods were effective ways to improve learning and retention of medicine students in anatomy course, but compound method indicated more effective.