مهدی اخوان

Absurdity is a subject that has long attracted the attention of philosophers and theorists, with Thomas Nagel being one of the prominent figures in this discourse. Nagel presents two main arguments in defense of life's absurdity. His first argument suggests that absurdity arises from the unbridgeable gap between human desires (the ideal world) and external reality (the external world). In this, he follows the path of thinkers like Albert Camus, and before him, Schopenhauer and others. However, what makes Nagel's view particularly significant is his second argument, which centers on the nature of human rationality. He questions whether humans can possess a stable rationality that remains defensible across various circumstances. Nagel answers this question negatively, arguing that human rationality is defensible only from a human perspective. If humans can detach from themselves and view their lives from an external perspective (a transcendent vantage point), they will realize that their rationality is not as solid or reliable as it first appears. What initially seems rational, valuable, and serious becomes less certain and trustworthy when seen from above. The lack of solid rationality leads to a lack of stable values, as values are based on a rational foundation. Without such a foundation, values cannot remain constant, leading to a state of absurdity. However, from Nagel's viewpoint, absurdity is not inherently negative; rather, it reflects the way humans live, and we must learn to accept it. Understanding life's absurdity simply reduces the seriousness with which we approach life, suggesting that we should engage with existence in a more tolerant and humorous way. This study uses a descriptive-analytical method, relying on library research to explore Nagel's views.

The essential movement of the soul is considered as one of the important and key foundations of transcendental wisdom, which brings many effects and results. One of the most important issues in this regard is to examine the relationship between the essential movement of the soul and the truth of perception. That is, what role does the essential movement of the soul play in human perceptions? And what effect does it have on the topics of science in Sadra's wisdom? The purpose of this research is to explain the impact of the essential movement of the soul on the truth of perception, which was done with a descriptive and analytical method and based on a library study. can be followed. The acceptance of the essential movement of the soul, in the dimension of the cognitive existence of perception, causes Mulla Sadra to put forward the rise of sensory and imaginary forms to the soul and to leave the rise of the solutions of the sages of Masha. He knows the acceptance of the essential movement of the soul and explains it based on the essential movement of the soul. It also considers the burden of intellectual abstraction and the perception of intellectual universals to be conditional on the essence. In the epistemological dimension, the soul, due to its existential elevation, becomes capable of the perfections of the truths beyond itself, and it brings a bearing other than the first bearing and the common bearing called the bearing of truth

The type and program of Kant's monetary philosophy in ethics is prescient and pre-empirical (or metaphysical) principles of ethics. With this goal in the foundation of metaphysics, ethics, moral value, absolutely, only the decent will is the good field; An intention that is determined by the moral law, absolute, rational and simple, and the motive of action is duty and not something else, including a feeling of compassion and a desire to achieve the result and obedience to God's orders. Kant presents various formulas for the moral law (universal law, universal law of nature, humanity, self-reflection and kingdom of ends). In Post-Criticism II, Kant relates the completion of abstraction to integration problems. One of the problems that Kant deals with is speed, relationships, and sexual intercourse, which can only be fulfilled legally in the form of marriage. In addition, marriage is not based on friendship or love, but based on sexual intercourse and agreement between a man and a woman for the exchange of sexual organs. This image of marriage and sexual relations raises various issues in Kant's field of ethics; including that opposition to individuality in the interaction between people, how is it gathered in the fulfillment of sex and marriage? Does Kant's formula of humanity make an exception in this case or does it somehow justify marriage in the same formula? Prohibition of ownership of a person's body, how can it be collected by marriage, which is the transfer of this ownership? The commentators of Kant answer these questions with the points that I will discuss in this article. Kant, along with theorists of physical law in ethics (such as Thomas Aquinas), believes that sexual intercourse with a married person is obviously devoid of any virtue, unless it is done with the motive of reproduction. Kant's opposition to certain sexual relations and/or sexual movements (such as masturbation, sexual relations with animals and homosexuals) can be understood in this context. Finally, in this article, the place of love in Kant's ethics is discussed and the question is whether we have a duty to love others.

Talking about the meaning of life and tying ethics and moral living with meaningful life, apart from any belief, has always been in the deep philosophical thought. Nigel made efforts in this field, who has his own intellectual-and-philosophical paradigms in the path of connecting biological ethics and meaningfulness of life. The purpose of the present research is to know the relationship between morality and meaning of life from philosophical perspective.

The used methodological approach is qualitative in which, through the analysis of Nigel works on ethics and the meaning of life, it has been achieved.

Believing in the alternative principle in ethics, Nigel acknowledges the fact that people have equal capacities and no person is superior to another. He considered the motivational foundation of morality in a person to be beyond desire and envisioned a moral action for him. He considers living ethically as a necessary component of the meaningfulness of life, and he believes that in addition to not believing in the world after death, the meaningfulness of this life can be achieved in the framework of biological ethics.

Results showed that due to coexistence, humans can influence each other’s lives and make the life of this world meaningful through moral prepositions, even if they do not believe in the afterlife. If we target the component of ethics and bioethics from our daily relationships and interactions, the life of this world will become an anomic focus and meaning will emerge from our personal and social relationships.

The current curriculum for MA in Islamic Theology was designed in 1384 (2005). After 16 years, now it needs both minor and major revisions in courses as well as its headlines. This includes eliminations, introductions, minor changes, or major changes. In this paper, drawing on the teaching experiences of the authors and others in this area, we propose a better-designed and a more comprehensive curriculum. In this proposal some courses are eliminated due to uselessness and some other necessary ones are introduced. Other revisions include change in the title of courses to better match with their content. In general, all courses are revised and updated one by one. By providing a report on the status quo, criticizing it, evaluating it, and suggesting an ideal situation, we propose a new curriculum. Although it probably has its own faults and will get old due time, it is clear that the current curriculum needs some major revisions.

This research is intended to have a comparative study on the place of altruism in the moral training of John White and Martyr Morteza Motahhari. This is a theoretical research conducted in a comparative analytical method for comparing the theories of moral training of John White and Martyr Morteza Motahhari. This research is aimed at answering the question of what sharing points as well as differences exist between altruism theories of White and Motahhari in the field of moral training. The research came to the result that both scholars settle the issue of altruism in the theory of moral training by adopting a unifying approach. Regarding personal well-being, White places the interests of others and personal interests under the title of well-being, while Motahhari, by presenting his theory of true self and developing the concept of self, emphasizes that the conflicting point must be turned from self and others to self and true self in the moral training. Hence, both thinkers believe in psychological altruism on the basis of weak interpretation, meaning that human beings can do something to benefit others. According to White, the ultimate goal of moral training encompasses the well-being of educators. Motahhari, however, based on Islamic teachings, considers the ultimate goal of moral training as intimacy to God. Moreover, due to the fundamental intellectual-philosophical differences between the ideas of White and Motahhari, White rejects religion and pursues training in a completely liberal-democratic context. On the contrary, Motahhari uses religious teachings to validate his views.

Although the rule of individuation of reactions has been worldly common and accepted in the system of criminal justice, it is still confronted with certain problems. Considering the problem of moral luck, the article seeks to provide a special account of this rule. The problem of moral luck challenges our moral assessments. The main objection is that when we do not have control over our behavior, how can we be blamed for it. One of the potential responses neglected by researchers in the pre-behavioral luck is to take into consideration the compatibilist view, and more importantly the problem of weakness of will. Weakness of will, as it will be explained later, may justify the different ways of moral assessments. This justification articulated in legal terms can offer a novel strong explanation for justifying the rule of individuation of reactions in the system of criminal justice. Relying on analytical research the present article shows that the compatibilist view can justify the principle of inflicting punishment; justifying the principle of inflicting punishment, the problem of weakness of will can lay the foundations for accepting the differences among reactions.

The meaning of life is considered a key concept in human life, and the concerns and efforts around its discovery and conceptualization date back as long as human life. Philosophers, especially Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi, were those people who made great efforts to analyze ethics and its role in giving meaning to life. Therefore, the purpose of the current research is to analyze the relationship between morality and the meaning of life from the perspective of Khwaja Nasir. The approach adopted for this purpose is the qualitative study of the content of Khajah's works on ethics and the place of his opinions and opinions in giving meaning to life. Khawaja Nasir considers goodness and perfection for man, and considers these components and efforts to achieve them important in making human life meaningful. He considers the ultimate goal for human life and considers its achievement dependent on acquiring moral virtues and avoiding vices. Therefore, it can be concluded that Khwaja is a goal-oriented philosopher who sees the ultimate happiness of man in achieving a high goal. According to his opinions, pleasing God and implementing his plans on earth can be the ultimate goal of man, which makes life meaningful. Therefore, Khajah's theory is close to the theory of divine purpose, a theory in which; The meaning of human life depends on moving along the path of God's determined plans, and only religion can clarify this path for us.

Through history many have challenged philosophy and logic. Ibn Timiya not only challenges Aristotlian/Avicennean philosophy, but their logic. He presented his discussions in details in many books, but in Arrado Alal Almanteqeen book, based on the the two-part conception of logic (concept and judgment) and discussing his two claims about each part of logic, he systematize his objections. This book has four sections: 1) Notion of desired is only possible through definition. 2) Definition is knowledge of conceptions. 3) Affirmation of desired is only possible through deduction. 4) Deduction or logical argument provides knowledge of affirmation. Ibn Timiya presents his ideas in two positive and negative ways, as 1 and 3 are negative and 2 and 4 are positive. According to Ibn Timiya neither positive nor negative claims of logicians are true. He provides eleven reasons against 1 and seven reasons against 2, mean while he objects to the components of definition. This paper deals with Ibn Timiya's general objections to Aristotlelian logic (based on some verses from Quran) and also his (positive and negative) objections to the conception part of the Aristotelian logic. At times, he compares these with some empiricist philosophers. In addition to his objections, his main claims against essentialism and rejection of distinction between essense and attributes and rejection of the distinction between conception and judgment are discussed.

Training is said to have different purposes. Within the philosophical framework of John White—the contemporary philosopher of education—the ultimate goal of training lies in “individual wellbeing which owes to the wellbeing of others. ” White, who has succeeded to accommodate his goal of the training system within national curricula in the UK, believes that in order for trainees to development morality, they need to target two things within their educational system: every child should achieve a flourishing life and should help others to do the same. This approach rejects the traditional view of education according to which only moral training is directed at others and other kinds of training and education are directed at one’s own interests. On this approach, all kinds of training are directed both at oneself and at others. It offers a solution to the philosophical dispute of self and other, and can formulate the basic problem of moral training—that of trainees coming to develop moral characteristics. In this paper, we elaborate the core of White’s theory, and then consider ideas of “egoism” and “altruism” as well as their relations to moral training, particularly in White’s view. We have deployed the descriptive-analytic method and library sources in order to examine propositions and uncover the relation between altruism and moral training. [1] [1] .This research is derived from the PhD dissertation: “The Place of Altruism in Moral Training: A Comparative Study of the Views of John White and Mortaza Motahhari.

One of the main issues in explaining the phenomenon of diversity of religions in the world is the issue of religions ranking; i. e. the question of whether religions are essentially comparable or not! And if it is comparable, what is the criterion and criterion of this comparison? It seems that the border between two different positions in explaining the phenomenon of religious plurality, namely relativism and religious pluralism, comes from the accuracy of the issue of religions ranking. In this article, we will speak of two main representatives of these two trends by proposing and examining this problem and among the religious relativists we refer to Ernest Troeltsch and to John Hick from religious pluralism. This article seeks to put these two theories together and remind them of their similarities and reveal their fundamental differences. Briefly, it can be noted that the major similarity between Troeltsch and Hick is to rely on cultural categories in the consistency of religious awareness, while the fundamental difference between them is the observation of objectivity or subjectivity in their grading criteria. In the end, Hick claims that although religions are comparable in principle, but practically the result of this comparing is the equivalence of religion’s Truth-claims, while Troeltsch says it's basically impossible to compare religions, اowever, in his original statements, he clearly states that in practice, Christianity is superior to other religions. Of course, in his later remarks, he reviews this result and claims that religions are only relative in absolute terms and he claims absolute religions are relative only.

As a subjective basis of all actions, happiness is one of the most important concepts in ethics, .However, according to Kant's ethics, this concept cannot be a foundation or motivation for general and absolute ethics. The aim of this paper is to investigate why happiness is ignored in Kant's ethics. It begins with the definition of happiness and then considers the critiques and the principles of Kant's ethics that are in contrast with seeking happiness .At last, the paper is concluded with some criticisms. The aim of ethics is setting categorical and unconditional rules which the experimental principle of happiness cannot provide. Emphasizing on the objectivity of the rules of man’s intellect, Kant’s formal ethics regards paying attention to experimental end and matter as harmful.. However, happiness is a subjective and personal issue whose provisions can neither be general nor do they necessarily result in happiness, because happiness is often provided by nature. The most important critique to this kind of ethics is denying the role of seeking happiness as a motive for moral action. Moral actions need either the support of God for its obligations and prohibitions or the consideration of personal happiness, both of which Kant's ethics lacks.

This paper tries to describe, analyze and critique John Mackie’s metaethical views. Mackie’s metaethical views and his skeptical stand, along with his ideas on the philosophy of religion, are highly influenced by the English philosopher, David Hume. However, his ideas, at least on the realm of ethics, are more complex than those of Hume’s and thus more difficult to challenge. Mackie’s ideas, regardless of their similarities to other skeptical views in Ethics, have their own complications, so much so that some of critics who work on various aspects of moral nihilism have failed to fully address it. Hence alternative arguments are needed in order to defend moral knowledge and critique Error Theory. This paper argues that first, some of Mackie’s arguments are fundamentally distorted, and second, even if they were not, they hardly result in moral nihilism.

Iraq is announced as one of the first fifth countries which hold the most crude oil inventories and the first fifteenth world gas reserves. The ten-year-old plan of oil and gas fields development in this country which has been started in 2008, has experienced four of tenders between the years 2009 and 2012. Oil production of this country has reached 3.2 million barrels a day in 2012 and placed Iraq in the third place as a petroleum exporter before Iran. There are serious uncertainties about crude oil stocks and production in Iraq. Also, various statistics are issued by different sources. Critical challenges for Iraq in developing oil fields are: lack of export terminals, electricity shortage, lack of water for injecting oil fields, insecurity, restrictions wells and other top level equipment limitations, legal uncertainties, expert labor limitations, and insufficient financing. The effective presence of various Chinese companies in Iraq’s fields demonstrates special strategic attention of China to Iraq’s hydrocarbon resources for oncoming requirements of this country. This may lead to replacement of Iran’s oil with Iraq’s and change Chinese oil supply strategies. As a result, Iranian oil embargo may potentially maintain and expanded.

The study of oil and gas contracts require coherent theoretical framework that links different disciplines. Transaction cost economics present an interdisciplinary approach for analyzing contractual issues. Since 1995 three generations of buy-back contracts implemented in Iran. This study for analyzing opportunism, one of TCE behavioral assumptions, focused on the first generation contracts. Opportunism is interest seeking without considering principles and consciences that do not maximize common interest. The buy-back contract parties have different interests that are not aligned with each other. The contract is incomplete; there is asymmetry in information and investment structure, so opportunism is possible. Some forms of Shirking of obligations, enforcing to renegotiation and inflexibility under new circumstances in buy-back contract, are examples of ex-post opportunism. Because of the vulnerability of the parties due to their specific investment in the project, monitoring mechanisms in the buy-back contract is not able to prevent from opportunism. Incentives alignment is another solution for opportunistic behavior that occurred in test period, but not in cost minimization and using more efficient technologies.

There are two different views about the role of religion in human culture and civilization. Some scholars believe in the constructive and positive role of the religion; whereas, some contemporary religion philosophers such as Kicher (in his book: Life after faith) takes a skeptical and secularist perspective and argues that due to the diverse religious teachings, their conflicts and their controversial reports about"sublime percept"they certainly bear false. Therefore, the universal values which will rule human civilization and culture are secular values. After a brief report of the book, Alvin Plantinga, a famous, punctilious Christian philosopher, somehow criticizes it and then tries to defend it that we consider him unsuccessful. Allāme Tabātabā’i as a contemporary Muslim thinker first defines the nature of religion and then divides religions into the right and the wrong. He takes the view that accepts diversity only among Abrahamic religions which he considers as the right religions and believes that the spirit of them all is submission to God. He asserts that the controversy among religions is due to their perfection, quantity, and quality and it does not root in their nature. He argues that as the past culture of man is beholden to religion his future will also be a religious one due to constant values of human. The present study, tries to exactly review Kicher’s book based on-Alvin Plantinga’ report and then aims to criticize his ideas from the perspective of Allāme Tabātabā’i, through descriptive and library research.

This article pointed out some scopes of convergence between logic and ethics to talk about new challenges and solutions which are the result of these convergences. Among the issues in the field, the outher tries to report and explore these philosophical and logical conflicts: the gap between "is" and "ought" (The problem of Hume) and also some solutions proposed to solve it and some other paradoxes of logic of duty, the moral logical principle that "ought requires the ability" and its logical analysis, naturalistic fallacy (and also reasoning throughe open question),and issues or conflicts concerning the practical and moral deduction (in the context of the role of principles in moral reasoning and also the problem of weakness of moral will).These challenges and conflicts in the new history of philosophy have made a new literature and also many neoteric issues in realm of both logic and ethics which is continue nowadays as issues that their primary followers had not enough attention to them.

An incomplete contract is an exchange in which some aspects of a transaction is unspecified. Contractual incompleteness decrease contract effectiveness. Buy-back contract has legal and contractual obligations witch incompleteness from some of these aspects is undesirable. This study analysis these obligations in time، cost and repayment in phases 2&3 of south pars gas field in development period. Result shows that buy-back contract for phases 2&3 of south pars gas field is incomplete. Because of high transaction cost، parties bounded rationality، uncertainty، complexity and project time and necessarily lead not to perfect implementation of commitment. In transaction cost economics any contract is inevitably incomplete. Some mechanisms designed for gap filling in incomplete contract. In buy-back contract this mechanism is designed in joint management committee. Distribution of power between parties is equal and contract cannot adapt contract performance with initial contract.