مهدی خبازی کناری

The purpose of this research is to investigate the relationship between Buber’s and Levinas’s ideas by emphasizing the concept of otherness. Research has been conducted on various topics related to Buber’s and Levinas’s ideas in the field of moral philosophy. However, the relationship between them remains an ambiguous area of study. This research seeks to provide a comparative reflection on the concept of otherness according to the thoughts of these two philosophers. Based on the studies conducted, while Buber’s thoughts emphasize an I-Thou relationship that fosters a symmetrical, close, and reciprocal connection, Levinas highlights a face-to-face encounter characterized by an asymmetrical distance. Levinas criticizes Buber’s I-Thou relationship as insufficiently ethical because it prioritizes the self over the other in a self-centered process of formation. In fact, Levinas argues for the irreducible distance between the I and the Other, where the Other is no longer assimilated into the I or the self. According to Levinas’s thought, if, in encountering another, there is an expectation of reciprocal and equal treatment from the Other, one steps outside the ethical realm.

Zhang Yimou was influenced by profound mystical thinking of Taoism, with symbolic language in the colors and the design of the scene, he uses it as a powerful framework in his cinephilia to restate the epics and history of his country. In the crisis-stricken world influenced by Western philosophy, he uses the concepts of Tao's Eastern philosophy to achieve his goals in a practical way in the mise-en-scène of his films. This research is a descriptive – analytical method to distinguish the aesthetic characteristics of Zhang's films in the Wuxia genre from the perspective of Lao Tzu's philosophy, at the same time, it examines them in contemporary Chinese cultural debates. The main objective has been to analyze the revolution of Taoist seasons and its influence on the mise-en-scène in Zhang's Wuxia works and to understand the thought and foundations of the artist's ontology. Thus, the research findings show that Zhang’s cinematic thinking, as a field associated with movement and time and image, it allows us to rethink in the themes of traditional thinking and even recognize the interrelation dynamics of the link of Taoist thinking with modern phenomena such as cinema.

Heidegger's existential philosophy is among the ontological theories that explain "existence" and the universe. It has continuously affected various fields in the last two centuries. In his philosophy, the key concept of "existence" implies understanding the existential self in accordance with the "place of existence". Heidegger believes that in order to understand existence, one must start from the "self". In other words, it is the human being who must initially think about his existence. Put differently, the first thing one faces when dealing with Heideggerian existential thought is himself. In fact, the place of existence marks every being’s entrance to the realm of existence. The birds in Attar’s story of Simourgh are interactively connected with the cosmos. In this regard, one can existentially investigate them in light of their proximity/interaction with existence, homeland, existentiality of the path, and collectivity in the formation of existence. If we regard each of the birds as "Dasein", then every being is a place of existence, which breeds a world of its own. In the storyline of Attar’s Simorgh, every bird gets tangled by unreal experiences of place which prompts their memory and prevents them from leaving other birds. In the end, only thirty birds return to their original homeland, which signifies their true being, existence, or place.

Derrida plays a significant role in introducing Saussure to the philosophical and linguistic discourse of our time. While dealing with Saussure's intellectual foundations and Saussure's influence on Derrida, this article aims to analyze Derrida's deconstructive criticism of Saussure on the issue of writing. Saussure, in the book of General Linguistics, by dividing the realm of language into two parts outside and inside, pushes writing out of the inner realm of language and considers it as the representation of language. Saussure considers writing to usurp the place of speech and considers it a marginal matter. Derrida believes that Saussure could not violate the metaphysics of presence by determining the limits of the inside and outside for language and the exit of writing from the inner realm of language. By proposing the concept of Difference, he refers to the independent aspect of writing compared to speech and removes writing from the subjugation of speech. According to Derrida, the arbitrariness of the sign can bring the signifier out of the subjugation of the signified and create multiple signifiers. According to Derrida, Difference indicates the possibility of continuous becomings in the text, and these becomings will bring an endless chain of signifiers.

For many years, philosophers have studied methods of epistemology through different approaches. The challenges in this area mainly focus on the question of the nature of the subject and object as well as their relation. These issues have led to two general but diverse movements: Idealism and Realism. Deconstruction, like its predecessor, Structuralism, is essentially epistemological. Structuralists conceptualised ‘structure’ in such a ways as to go beyond the subject and object duality. Deconstruction, positively and negatively, established deep bonds with structuralism. This study interprets this relation and argues that structure in structuralism is transformed into textuality in deconstruction. The difference is that the text is not as rigid as a "structure" and continues to exist as a flux. The constant evolution of the text as a whole eliminates the subject and object duality.  In this way, the concept of text acts as a bridge between linguistics and ontology. When Derrida discusses the text, he means any kind of being. This kind of being includes both concepts and objects. Derrida’s interpretation of language can be linked to the epistemological and ontological functions of language.

Basically, why does Derrida deconstructively question the current situation in the education system in general and the teaching style in particular? How the conventional teaching style is that active deconstruction has entered into its fabric and becomes its internal relation. The important issue in destructuring is both challenging the rigid structures formed in the educational system and teaching style and facing its silent possibilities. Teaching style, as a part of shaping the state of the educational system in the face of individual behavioral preferences, has the ability to manifest itself in the form of rigid and predetermined structures. In such a situation, deconstruction comes into action and, like a virus, disrupts the predetermined foundations of conventional styles and questions them. Derrida offers a new understanding of deconstructive teaching style in relation to teaching method. In the present research, first, the relationship between style and method is explained. Derrida emphasizes that deconstruction is not a method. The method is following predetermined rules, but deconstruction is the destroyer of any kind of external belonging. Therefore, he criticizes teaching methods in a critical way. Then, in the following, how to enter deconstruction as a facilitator in the education process and deconstruction teaching style will be analyzed.

Existential analysis of death is one of the fundamental Heidegger's thinking. According to Heidegger, death as the determination of Dasein's genuine possibilities is an inevitable necessity, which reveals part of his universality. The possibility with which Dasein was born and enters the process of understanding existence. In other words, life and death are two seemingly contradictory but mutually reinforcing things. In the Islamic tradition, Nahj al-Balaghah, with its existentialist views on the concept of death, considers it as the closest possibility to a person from which there is no escape. The consciousness’s death and its occurrence is part of the process of being a person. Hazrat Amir's reading of death is not a negative and anxious reading, it is a genuine and existentialist view that one realizes in the process of life as a potential thing. In the present study, with an existentialist view of death in Nahj al-Balaghah and the closeness and contemplation of Heidegger and Imam Ali on the issue of death will be shown, the concept of death ascending to self-awareness, conscious living and determining the real possibilities of the individual in Is the world. In other words, death is a kind of embrace of life.

The phenomenon of alienation according to the contrast between tradition and modernity, especially in Pahlavi era should have a meaningful relationship with the quasi-modernity flow and other intellectual and political flows. As the coup occurred in 28 Mordad 1332 was the most important and effective political flow that caused despair and failure and alienation in the middle and intellectual strata of society. So, it seems necessary to address the works of Gholam Hossein Saedi as an intellectual who represents the levels and aspects of this phenomenon. Because his literature is the product of a space that belongs to the field of quasi-modernity in Iran. This article tries to analyze and explain the story of "Cow" by Saedi (Bill Mourners Collection) which is in the form of a metaphorical and symbolic story, on the basis of alienation concept, and show the adventure of being alienation of Iranian human while facing reality, and also the role of inverted ideology in creation of this phenomenon. The research in question, after explaining the phenomenon of alienation based on genealogy of this concept shows its historical evolution in the views of Hegel and Feuerbach and Marx and Forum, examines the story of "Cow" according to metaphors such as "power and ideology", "identity", "another one". During the analysis of the story, we came to the conclusion that there is a hidden philosophical-psychological-sociological theory in the construction of the work that is visible in the structure, space and character of the story. Creating problematic characters like Mashdi Hassan, represents the author search to show a symbolic world tied to theory.

Semiotics is an important part of Saussure’s serious studies in the field of linguistics. According to Saussure, the nature of the sign is divided into signifier and signified. In the common sense, the signifier is something outside the mind and the signified is something inside the essentials (essences) in the substances which attributed on their univocal (non-derivative predication), not analogical gradation are attributed on their own essence. The question that arises here is what is the place of the negation of the existence of specie (specific substance) in the philosophical system of illumination and for what purpose? According to Suhrawardī’s method of reasoning, we find that he uses by knowing of the negation of the Specific substances (form of species) and the acceptance of the standing of the essence to the body (disposition, figure) and also gradation (ambiguity) in nature, uses them in proving the ideal (paradigm, idea) and designers (managers, governing) of differences and thus reaches in the new concept of nature. Nature in this new meaning and concept, as the origin (principle) of light management of the universe of objects by the lords of types (archetypes of species), in other words, the origin of light for the various movements (motions, change) of objects (physical beings).

The aim of this research was to determine the psychometric properties of Moral Identity Questionnaire.

Research method was correlational, and population included 10183 male and female students of Mazandaran University in 2017-2018 academic year. Among them, on the basis of sampling table of Morgan and Krejcie 1970 and through multistage cluster random sampling, 381 students for EFA and 384 students for CFA and reliability (in total 765) of the questionnaire were selected. In the sampling process, four faculties of humanity and social sciences, chemistry, economics and administrative sciences and basic sciences were randomly selected among twelve faculties. From the department of each faculty, two bachelor’s classes, one master class and one PhD class were selected. Totally, 726 students answered the Black and Reynolds’s (2016) moral identity questionnaire. After removing 61 incomplete questionnaires, 665 questionnaires were analyzed.

The results of EFA indicated that the questionnaire has two dimensions of moral self and moral integrity, which was verified by CFA as well. The result of Pearson correlation showed a moderate correlation between the dimensions (r= 0.29, P= 0.0001) and a very strong correlation between moral self dimension (r= 0.74, P= 0.0001), and moral integrity dimension (r=0.85, P=0.0001) with the total score of the questionnaire. Moreover, Cronbach’s alpha for the dimensions and total score varied from 0.80 to 0.85.

MIQ is appropriate for 18 years old subjects and above. It has an acceptable reliability and validity and can be used to measure moral identity of students and other classes of the society to identify moral self and moral integrity factors.

With the critique of the historical-comparative trends surrounding language, Saussure sets intralingual elements as his point of departure. In his view, the realized and dynamic nature of language does not reflect its true nature. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the static aspect of language or the synchronic approach to language. Saussure, under the influence of Kant's epistemology, separates the domains of language into langage, langue and parole, and restricts the concrete object, or in some way language principles, to the langue. Farabi has explored linguistic reflections in the tradition of Islamic philosophy in a close relation with Saussure. He begins his linguistic studies with a fresh and new reading of the associations between language and logic. By arguing that speech (notgh) and logic (mantegh) are derived from the same root, he traces back the origin of logic to language. In the idea of Farabi, speech is the fundamental and general aspect of language. He summarized three realms of language into rational soul (Nafs-e Nateghe), inner word and outer word, where the inner word is home to linguistic elements. Irrespective of this issue, in semiotics, the relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary in a way that is comparable to that of speech and logic. The present paper, by delving into three domain of language proposed by Saussure, seeks to exhibit that this structuralist conception is not new. For centuries, in the tradition of Islamic philosophy, Farabi has elaborated on such reflections. Farabi's notion of dividing linguistic signs into two parts of speech and logic and the tripartite division of language offers a new conception of linguistics, which marks the beginning of a new trend of studies in Islamic linguistics

Heidegger in the book he The Way of Language change his intellectual position from foundmental ontology to more original means talk about essence of language. This essay shows how can language understand its internal foundations by itself? Heidegger return to language original situation means Ereignis. Heidegger says Ereignis is deriving force that change silence of language to speech. Language shows himself by speech and talk to himself. In the other hand, Ereignis all of beings in the special situation with hermeneutic relationships with Dasein and the world. In Gadamer’s thought, indirectly Ereignis determined form of dialogue between interpreter and text. Take it possibility two horizon that each other go to their horizon and reach a common situation. Thus according to Heidegger and Gadamer’s thought, Ereignis as opener hidden language text and interpreter provide a new interpretation from relation Dasien and being. There is a common horizontal between interpreter and text and to speak language as language to language.

This article seeks to explain the epistemological and ontological aspects of a priori. This concept plays a role in the thought of Kant as the consistency of essential and epistemological terms. And in Heidegger's and Gadamer's thoughts, it is present in other way. This article seeks to explain that the epistemological and ontological aspects of the former are reflected in Heidegger and Gadamer's thoughts. Kant uses it in the epistemological context, Heidegger in the ontological field, and Gadamer place on the combination of these two epistemological and ontological views. In short, a priori in Kant's epistemology is an integral part of the mind and is necessary for the realization of the reality and experience. In Heidegger's ontology, a priori is the former perception of being that the foundation of knowledge is in the realm of experience, and in Gadamer's thought, a priori is a rational necessity that the history of the individual and its belonging to the tradition and society are its ontological nature.

Marx is one of those philosophers that has had a vast and profound influence on the philosophy and social - political movements of the twentieth century in the realm of theory and practice. Scholars in such diverse school of thoughts such as Popper and Derrida have considered Marx from positive and negative aspects. Simultaneous examination of their encounter with Marx is important in many ways. Popper negatively criticizes Marx comprehensively in order to substantiate capitalism. But Derrida according to the deconstruction approach criticizes some of Marx's concepts and reconstructs some others. Derrida's approach provides a context for passing the duality of socialism and capitalism that governed all elements of the ideas of the twentieth century. This article explains three cases in particular: 1- Positive and negative encountering of Popper with Marx, 2- Positive and negative encountering of Derrida with Marx, 3- Similarities and differences of Popper and Derrida in facing Marx.

Introduction and statement of the problem: The origin of the formation and development of interactive art can be traced where the audience finds a way into art event.  Nevertheless, inviting the audience to interact, is not an idea or a designed game set by the artist.  Interactive art can neither be evaluated as a new style in the world of art, nor can it be considered as a change in aesthetic tendencies taken place through time.  Interactive art is not a tendency towards changing the form or mode of expression.  Rather, it hints at active participation of the audience on the art work, something that has brought about fundamental change in art.  In fact, the audience pervades into closed borders of artwork and fundamentally brings the art and the integrity of the work of art under question.
In analyzing the interactive installation of "Text Rain" our objective is to understand how the audience communicates with this interactive event.  The question here is whether the audience who is looking at the event that is happening in front of him, is also taking a deep look into that event? Is the interaction a result of the aesthetic judgment and thinking? or the audience is part of an event that is progressing and she/he only interacts bodily with the event?
Theoretical Such a fundamental change in the art world has instigated numerous analytical attempts.  Many theorists of art, focusing on the analysis of ontological have tried to define or categorize this field of art.   Interaction is not an ontological feature.   however, interaction is a situation in which totality of art work and the aesthetics tenets encounter a gap.  This cannot be reduced to an abstract aesthetical concept.  Some researchers have also paid attention to the historical roots of interactive art, so to explain that the development of the interactive art has close relationship with technology.  Undoubtedly technology has created a platform for interaction in various levels in virtual space, digital space and Internet-based communication.  It is true that technology enables audience to interact easily and in a short time.  In fact, these possibilities have helped expanding the field of art, but in the current study we are not looking for how to provide a platform for development of interactive art.  Rather, we seek to understand how the audience communicates to interactive art event.   Following we will discuss the methodology of dealing with such dilemma.
Encountering an interactive art event including physical interaction through bodily proximity or corporeal interaction through virtual media is an exposure that is different from seeing a work of art.  Since the encounter with an interactive art event is not limited to vision, reflection or judgment, "embodiment" plays a crucial role in understanding and interacting with interactive event in the virtual space and virtual imaginary space.  To provide an analysis of interactive art, such fundamental difference needs a different approach.  Such approach needs not to be based on aesthetic judgments, rather, it should be based on an analysis of physical contact that is interwoven with interactive event space.  According to the description that was given, embodiment plays a key role in the analysis of audience interaction.  Here and instead of judging the artwork based on its visual features, we attempt to analyze the interaction with the interactive installation "Text Rain" from the audience corporeal point of view in the interactive event.  To reach such objective we establish a dialogue between Merleau-Ponty's concepts and interaction in the installation "Text Raining".  "Embodiment" is a key concept in understanding Merleau-Ponty's philosophy.  In his view, the body is our perspective towards the world.  That is, our bodies are not the means for unclear sensory experiences.  Perception is not a simple and passive exposure of our eyes or other sensory systems that would be based on judging the data details, rather it is an immersive and all-inclusive experience which enables us to access the world through "embodiment".  That means, our bodies use sensation, movability and interactive capabilities with the world so to enable us to understand the things and the world.
Audience of the interactive art is not only a viewer or judge of the artwork, i.e., someone who only looks at it from outside.  viewing the work of art that is limited to vision and assessment of aesthetic features of it, entails a limited perception to the visual details of artwork.  However, in the interactive art, the audience is invited to engage in an interactive event.  Before trying to understand or judge, the audience has to respond to the event.  The relationship occurs through the embodiment, and it is through this encounter that all of the senses non-separable from each other become active.  Interactive action is essentially an action based on "embodiment" and bodily engagement.  Emphasis on embodiment shows that “understanding” the artwork is not the same as the "perception" gained through the interactive action, which is always associated with the "embodiment".  This shift from judging the object to activate process of interaction necessarily requires new approaches to the analysis.  Due to this necessity, we analyze the interactive art from physical and bodily activities aspects of audience.
 The results shows that, in this installation neither audience's body is the tools for action nor his/her mind is the means for cognition, rather the audience's perception is intertwined with sensation and movement with the event.  At the same time that the audience sees himself in the mirror, she/he grasps the letters coming down to her/his body.  In this way, “seeing” is not distinguishable from moving.  Audience enters into the events of imaginary space intertwined with virtual media and reality not only by looking at the event, but also by all sensation and physical motion.  The accompaniment of image of body in the mirror (similar to the real event that people have faced repeatedly) and to fall down the words, opens up a fancy- imaginative space for the audience's experience, which is somewhere between reality and imagination.  The audience in this space is not faced with the lack of sensory experience, but with a kind of bodily presence within this space.  She/ he constantly comes and goes, between the perceptual presence in the world and the powerful atmosphere of the fantasy- imaginative space that has tied to the real image of his body in the mirror.  As a result, the interactive art event is realized by the presence of audience and her/his "embodiment".  This constitutes an act based on corporeal communication with interactive event, which is the basis of interaction in the interactive art instead of thinking or aesthetic judgement of interactive art event. 

This research is conducted with the goal of investigating ontological world view and epistemological beliefs of university’s professors. To this aim, 32 faculty members of university of Mazandaran are selected through purposeful random sampling. The research method is qualitative and the data is collected by Schraw and Olfson four-quadrant scale and semi-structured interviews. The collected data are analyzed by thematic coding. The results of this study indicate that most professors adopt relativistic ontological and epistemological world views. Most of the participants pointed to some organizational, cultural and human factors in transforming and realizing their relativistic beliefs to educational practices. The participants report that their personality characteristics and educational experiences during academic life have significantly developed and changed their worldviews. It is concluded that acquiring more sophisticated ontological and epistemological worldviews involves serious revision in educational planning.

In Kant’ viewpoint, beauty is neither objective nor does it rely on concepts, but it is the subject that establishes the judgment of aesthetic in object of art. Kant believes that the feeling of pleasure in judgment of taste arises from reflective judgment of the subject of judgment. He argues that art is distinguished form nature, science and craft, and divides it into mechanical art, pleasant art and beautiful art. Pleasant art is a kind of art whose purpose is just pleasure, while the criteria of judgment in beautiful art is reflective judgment. The work of beautiful art is the product of author’s genius through form. From the perspective of ideas Kant divides fine arts into three kinds: art of speech, visual art (Including plastic art and painting) and art of the beautiful play of sensations. According to his description of certain use of the object as a condition that limits the aesthetical ideas, it seems that handicrafts are sub- architecture, and should be regarded as plastic art. But given the wide range of handicraft products, from mass production to unique objects with aesthetical features, and from useful to the decorative, they cannot all be equally judged as craft. This research seeks to analyze aesthetically the range of crafts based on the concepts explained in “Critique of Judgment”. This this way it distinguishes the field of art and non-art in the productions of handicraft and introduces areas of pleasant art and fine art in objects of handicraft.

Moral commitment as an important issue demands more considerations especially in research domains. Given to the necessity of scale development, this research was conducted with the goal of constructing valid and reliable questionnaire for moral commitment assessment. By using random clustering sampling, 278 undergraduate and graduate students of university of Mazandaran were selected. Based on theoretical framework, an initial scale with 35 statements was developed and tested. Data was analyzed by using SPSS 22. To analyze data, factor analysis, correlation and T-test were used. Factor analysis results indicated, two main factors including moral commitment with reference to self (13 items) and the other (12 items) were confirmed. Result of divergent validity was congruent with factor analysis. By using Cronbach alpha coefficient the reliabilities of two factors (0/88 & 0/85) was at the high level. Findings illustrated, this instrument for moral commitment has goodness of fit and could be used in related research.

The conventional interpretation of Parvin Etesami's poems is that she was, in terms of structure and content, attached to the previous poetic tradition and took step in the path of her predecessors; but her humanitarian attitude and her compassionate to the poor people and social concerns in general, for instance, are more highlighted in comparison to the ancestors and are rooted in Parvin's individual nature and her femininity. It has been tried, in present essay, to show that Parvin was synchronous with her past poetic tradition in terms of structure and form, but she has reflected, in terms of thought and poetic content, the voice of the contemporary liberal philosophers. Therefore, she pioneered many other poets, in modernization. One of the main development sources of such strong thoughts is the impact of Marx's ideas on her. Like any other poet, parvin has reflected to the events and ideas of her living period and has evolved her poetry in relation to them. It has been tried, in present essay, to show that Parvin might have both historically and socially been familiar to Marx's ideas, and her poems are full of Marxist concepts..

Concept of the other in philosophy of Levinas gives identity to his other concept. He criticizes the epistemology and ontology, at the same time questions the integrity of the subject and the universality of other. According to Levinas the other is possibility to deny the totality of the subject and possibility to transcendence to go beyond static identity. This article tries to show that relationship between subject and the other is not cognitive or ontological, but it's foundation is ethical relationship that is formed in proximity the other. The most important dimension of other's existence that we understand it, is the moment of his/her death. This leads to fundamental ethical relationship in which responsibility for the death of the other is the most important aspect of realization of our being. According to us, understanding being, as Heidegger insists on it, is not being toward death through a genuine relationship with his own death, but we believe that other's death is the moment of devastating departure to find out such a being tied with the nothingness. The existence is realized in being for other and subjectivity in the acts of relation to the other and subsequently by protecting others against death.

As the presenter of logical discussions, Aristotle has put forth numerous concepts that have dominated the world until today. Since Aristotle was a systematizer, his logical concepts have their own roots in his philosophical, ontological and epistemological concepts. This study touches on these concepts and their philosophical roots. Comparing these concepts with the concepts of fuzzy logic, it evaluates the logical, philosophical, ontological and epistemological foundations of this latter logic. It is worth saying that these two logics make use of different epistemologies. Whereas Aristotelian logic is based on a dogmatic bi-valued system, fuzzy epistemology (logic) is founded on plurality and a multi-valued system. These two logics have different understandings of the nature of mind and reality and the relation between the two.

In Phenomenological approach , regardless of the rules and rationality, the body is seen as a phenomenon that puts the subject exposed to the experience and sensibility. In this approach, the debate over the relationship between the subject , the world and the body is not based on the ontology of the subject and not on the basis of his knowledge of the world , but based on his experience and somatic proximity with the world. This paper seeks to address the phenomenology of Husserl , Merleau-Ponty and Levinas , with a focus on the body and the concept of embodiment , analyzes the contact points as well as differences in approaches and ideas of this philosophers. In the current study, based on the views of the philosophers, we are trying to respond to intertwined questions which are all linked with the body and embodiment of the subject . Also, we want to know how embodiment subject understands the world. The result is that, the body is not the means or the way to understand the world, but embodiment is the situation for vital living in the world and the possibility for our moral living whit the other.
This article by phenomenological approach based on the books and articles by means of descriptive - analytical and critical comparison of the philosophers , seeks for answers to the research questions.

This research seeks to investigate the adequacy of the psychometric indicators of the Persian version of Schmit, Muldoon and Pounder's wisdom scale. By using random clustering sampling, 278 undergraduate and postgraduate students (both male and female) of University of Mazandaran were selected to complete the questionnaire. Validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by factor analysis, convergent validity, and divergent validity. Factor analysis results confirmed six initial dimensions. The reliability of the scale and subscales was verified by both Cronbach's alpha (0.71- 0.80) and test-retest method (0.71-0.78). In order to examine the effect of gender on the different dimensions as well as total score of wisdom, independent sample T-test was used to compare the different scores of male and female students along with their total scores. Our findings suggest that there is no statistically significant difference among male and female students. The devised instrument was proved to be sufficient for further studies.

This article is based on a syllogism which is in turn based on the following premises: First premise: knowledge corresponds with lifestyles. Second premise: language corresponds with knowledge. language corresponds with lifestyles. The first premise presumes that lifestyles are based on a particular epistemology. The second premise deals with the nature of relation between language and knowledge, an old topic tackled by philosophers, linguists and logicians from sophists to post-structuralists. What is the relation between language and knowledge? Are they the same or different when they are realized? If they are different from each other, which is prior to the other? The conclusion is that: firstly there are different language structures. Secondly these different language structures lead to different lifestyles. This has been realized in Western and Islamic traditions both theoretically as well as historically and socially. In order to prove his theory, the author has made use of both conceptual as well as objective structures.