نگار داوری اردکانی

The critical evaluation of language policy and planning in the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB), specifically regarding Persian as the national language of Iranians and the local languages as intellectual and cultural capitals, has become an emerging issue that has garnered significant attention from researchers across various fields. This research aims to underscore the importance of this subject and critically assess how IRIB addresses language-related matters. Furthermore, it seeks to develop strategies to enhance the Persian language, as well as to preserve and promote local languages as integral components of Iranian identity within this medium. To achieve this objective, the research employs semi-structured interviews, leveraging the perspectives of experts, including thirteen linguists and five IRIB managers and experts. The research findings highlight that, despite the undeniable importance of this organization in strengthening the Persian language and preserving local languages, there are several factors hindering its effective engagement with these issues. Foremost among these obstacles are a lack of comprehensive understanding of the significance of language policy and planning among custodians and the absence of a language policy document for IRIB. Consequently, there exists an unscientific approach within IRIB regarding this matter. The outcomes of this study can provide valuable insights for cultural custodians, particularly the managers and planners of IRIB, in the decision-making process concerning language policy and planning.

In this research, we try to apply linguistics studies to the analysis of novels through critical discourse analysis. Critical discourse analysts take into consideration those elements of discourse that are hidden medium in order to preserve power hierarchy. Contrary to descriptive-formal survey of language, they contend that language can be used intentionally to support dominance, inequality and struggle against them as well. The novel Bamdad-e Khomaar (The dawn of lassitude) by Fattaneh Haj Seyyed Javadi is analyzed based on Theo Van Leeuwen’s research tools namely activation and passivation, nomination and categorization, identification and functionalization, differentiation, and over determination. The research demonstrates how the analysis of the novel based on linguistic research tools, which were used in this research, can help readers to understand the opinions of the novelist regarding both social classes and women.

Along with education, the media plays a fundamental role in preserving and strengthening languages. Understanding the importance of this issue, in the current research, an attempt has been made to explore the approach of the national media, using an efficient model adopted from Johnson (2013) which is an innovative combination of the critical discourse analysis approach and the framework of language policy and planning. For this purpose, by extracting events related to the subject of language in both written and oral levels and examining their text and hypertext, they were descriptively and analytically studied. The findings indicate that the national media's approach to the Persian language is a promotion-oriented approach and its approach to local languages is expedience-oriented. The findings of this research can not only be useful in the critical evaluation of language management in the national media, but it can also be the basis for using the framework of language policy and planning in order to develop a roadmap with the aim of strengthening of the Persian language and preserving of local languages.

It is more than two decades that culture has been taught as the fifth skill for foreign language learners. Ta’arof is a communicative strategy that Persian learners need to use in their very initial interactions with Iranian society i.e. a lack of its command may cause miscommunication. A review of some of the most popular TPFL textbooks shows the need for a pedagogical and linguistic basis for teaching ta’arof. The present article is an attempt to provide such basis by portraying a relatively cohesive picture of ta’arof situations, functions and linguistic structures through investigating ta’arof in native-speakers’ daily conversations. In this research a corpus of ta’arof collected by Kalantari(1398) was explored on the basis of Koutlaki’s framework of politeness and ta’arof. The study distinguished nine situations of ta’arof i.e. conversation onset, reception, request and enquiry, gratitude, empathy and sympathy, appreciation and encouragement, donation and receiving gifts, states and actions, coming and going and conversation disclosure. Then the functions included in each situation and the linguistic structures used for expressing ta’arof were searched and listed The research took a preliminary step towards a grammar of ta’arof which could be used in compiling TPFL textbooks and facilitating ta’arof teaching and learning.

Cartoons are media tools published in many newspapers, magazines, Internet news websites and even virtual networks on various fields and themes. They play an important role in expressing and mediating different political, social, economic and cultural concepts. Conceptual metaphor and blending, as cognitive processes and communicative-discursive tools, are frequently used in cartoons. These metaphors are often pictorial or verbal-pictorial. The present study investigated a sample of political cartoons published in Fars news agency based on the framework of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), Multimodal Metaphor Theory (Forceville, 1994, 1996, 2009) and Conceptual Blending (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002). The aim of the study is to analyze the role and importance of conceptual metaphor and blending in political cartoons to determine how cognitive, communicative and discursive aspects of metaphors interact with each other in these cartoons. The results of the research show that the metaphor ‘JCPOA is a patient’ adopted from Hassan Rouhani’s speech may give rise to several conceptual mappings between the two conceptual spaces of ‘surgery room’ and ‘JCPOA agreement’ and the argumentative function of this metaphor may well justify Iran's decision to reduce its commitments under JCPOA.

Collaborative action research is concerned to improve practice, challenge and reorient thinking about practice and transform through dialogue and collaboration contexts for learning. It makes explicit links between the micro-level of classroom practice and the macro-level of society (Lock and et al. 2013: 112). The current research seeks to study and investigate the effectiveness of collaborative action research on the self-regulated learning of Iranian AZFA (Teaching Persian to Speakers of Other Languages) teachers, in order to determine the impact of conducting a collaborative action research course on Iranian teachers self-regulated learning dimensions. The statistical population of the study consisted of 20 Iranian AZFA teachers (95% female teachers and 5% male teachers) in several AZFA centers from all over the country. In order to collect data, `Yesim et al. (2009) self- regulated learning questionnaire which consisted of 40 items related to 9 dimensions for evaluating self-regulated learning, and action research project were used. Data were analyzed using SPSS software version 26. The results of the study showed that there is a significant difference between collaborative action research and self-regulated learning of Iranian AZFA teachers and the implementation of collaborative action research course has been effective on all dimensions of self-regulated learning of Iranian AZFA teachers except emotional control.

The present study examines the research status and scientific outputs of one of the sub-branches of Persian linguistics, namely Persian morpho-syntax. Persian morpho-syntax is a highly practical field, especially in the morpho-syntactic generation of the Persian language and in the lexicon selection of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature. This research seeks answers to the following questions: 1. What is the quantity of scientific outputs in the field of Persian morpho-syntax (in terms of articles, books, and theses) and what are the topics covered? 2. What are the research gaps in the field of Persian morpho-syntax? The findings indicated that the thematic inclination of theses is more towards morpho-syntactic studies in literature, word formation processes, and particularly compounding. The subject of articles, in order of frequency, leans towards compounding, affixes, and the general topic of word formation processes, while the books in this field are more focused on derivation (suffixes) and compounding. The correlation coefficient of thematic consistency between theses and articles showed a statistically significant moderate correlation. The topics of word formation processes and compounding have grown parallelly in both the theses and articles sections. In the topics of word studies and monolingual studies, the structure of speech components, case studies in lexicology, comparative studies of Persian morpho-syntax, diachronic studies, and literary works, productivity, creativity, lexicon, derivation, inflection, spelling methods, morpho-syntax and language learning and acquisition, a research gap was observed.

Textbooks are the basis of school education and the main sources of information for teachers and students. Many researchers emphasize on the fact that textbooks have a lot of problems and shortcomings in terms of social, cultural, educational and linguistic aspects. Grammar teaching is one of the most important issues in language instruction. Thus the purpose of this research is to evaluate and analyze the grammatical content of Iranian junior high school English textbooks in the framework of Keck and Kim (2014) Pedagogical Grammar.Study Questions:1. To what extent do these textbooks comply with the principles of pedagogical grammar?2. According to the principles of pedagogical grammar, what are the strengths and weaknesses of the textbooks?Literature Review: Theoretical framework of this research is Keck and Kim (2014) Pedagogical Grammar. According to them the most important principles of pedagogical grammar are as follows:1. Learners' attentional resources are limited, thus stimulating their attention to the maximum, leads to better learning of language and consequently grammar.2. Paying attention to the relation between form, meaning and use is a necessity of pedagogical grammar.3. The preparation of the content of pedagogical grammar should be based on the linguistic corpora of the target language.4. In compiling the content of pedagogical grammar, the instruction of both grammar and lexical items must be considered.5. To consider the processing and learning abilities of the learners is important.6. Grammar instruction must be done both explicitly and implicitly.7. The use of different types of corrective feedback is very effective in grammar teaching.8. Intensive and extensive instruction of grammatical structures is helpful in language learning.9. The role and importance of language learners in learning grammar by other language learners is significant.10. The content of pedagogical grammar should be designed based on meaningful communication exercises and tasks. After extracting and introducing the principles of pedagogical grammar, a checklist based on them was designed which measures the compliance of the grammatical content of the books with the mentioned approach.. After the checklist items were developed, 15 experts in the field of English language teaching and linguistics were asked to express their views on the checklist and its items in detail and determine the content validity ratio and content validity index of the items, based on the Likert scale. In total, the necessity and relevance of 42 out of 50 initially designed items were confirmed. The score that these books have obtained out of 210 total score is 135, which is approximately 64% of the total score. Therefore, the compliance of the books with the principles of pedagogical grammar is above average. A qualitative analysis also revealed that in compiling the books, observing the principles of• implicit and explicit grammar teaching,• attention to lexis-grammar interface,• intensive and extensive instruction of grammatical structures,• form, meaning and use relation,• attention to learning and processing abilities of learners,• the use of various tools to draw the learner's attention to grammatical structures,are its strengths ando non-compliance with the communicative language teaching principles,o scanty and inappropriate input,o lack of attention to the linguistic corpora of the target language and unrealistic input,o inattention to the important of corrective feedback,o insufficient attention to the significance of learners in learning the grammatical points by their classmates ando insufficient attention to the importance of morphologyare the weaknesses of these books.

Until about half a century ago, preserving the lending in translation meant that the original language was more in Persian. But half a century ago, and especially after the year, when the translation became more prosperous, they measured the value of the translation by adapting it to the original text, calling it style.The present study aims to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze the style and language varieties used within the original and Persian renderings of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) by Mark Twain, and observe whether they match. The reason this subject was chosen was the complete disregard of language varieties in the Persian renderings, and the reason this book was chosen, as the author himself has said, was the wide variety of accents, dialects and tones which are used in the narrative. The researcher has worked to identify these language varieties in the original text, and then check their counterparts within the Persian renderings. Then tried to see if they match and if the translation is faithful, and ultimately attempted to establish a connection between the translator’s performance and the book’s reception. First the English text and then the Persian renderings were checked for these stylistic and linguistic patterns. Ultimately, it was concluded that Golestan (1328) has performed better in comparison to Daryabandari (1366), but contrary to that, Daryabandari’s rendering has been better received by the market.Key words: translation, language varieties, text, characterization, tone

The purpose of this study was to examine parental beliefs in a sample of Iranian mothers.This study is a qualitative study with phenomenological approach in which. Samples were selected by targeted sampling to achieve saturation. In order to studying Iranian mothers' parenting beliefs, a semi-structured interview was devised based on the funnel technique. The results of qualitative analysis of the interview indicate that, from the point of view of mothers, obedience was considered as one of the most important characteristics of a good child, patience was regarded as one of the most important characteristics of a good mother, being kind and yet assertive was viewed as the most important characteristic of a good father, and becoming highly-educated was considered as an ideal characteristic of a child in adulthood. According to the qualitative analysis of the interview based on the funnel technique identified 6 deep parental beliefs , namely: seeking of society’s approval and collectivism, individualism and seeking freedom, feeling of responsibility and guilt in-lieu of maternal duties, seeking dominance and monopoly and finally the fear of loss. Furthermore, father is viewed as a powerful figure-head. The results of the study showed that sense of maternal responsibility and guilt towards it was more pervasive among Iranian mothers’ core beliefs. Therefore, based on the overall results, it can be ascertained that the deep sense of maternal responsibility in Iranian mothers affects the more superficial levels of cognition, similar to the middle layers of beliefs

Political cartoons are powerful and effective tools that serve to express the political concepts and views. They use cognitive mechanisms of conceptual metaphor, metonymy and blending abundantly. For the past eight years, ‘JCPOA’ has been the most important issue in Iran's foreign policy, which has also been widely reflected in domestic political cartoons. One of the issues that became a dispute between the United States and other countries member of “Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action” (JCPOA), in 2020 is the “Trigger Mechanism”. In the present research, two political cartoons on the subject of trigger mechanism from Tasnim News Agency have been extracted and investigated within the framework of three theories of Conceptual Metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1993), Multimodal Metaphor (Forceville, 1996, 2006, 2009) and Conceptual Blending (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002). The results of the study show that one of the cartoons is formed around the conceptual blending of two mental spaces of “beggary” and “activation of the trigger mechanism”, while the other is based on metaphor “THE TRIGGER MECHANISM IS A GUN”. In addition to conceptual metaphor and blending, two basic conceptual metonymies are also found in cartoons: One is “PERSON FOR COUNTRY/ GOVERNMENT” and the other is “PLACE FOR INSTITUTION/ ORGANIZATION”. Using these cognitive mechanisms, the cartoonist portrays Trump and his government’s attempt to activate the trigger mechanism as a desperate effort that is doomed to failure.

We are constantly shaping our world through verbal and nonverbal acts. Verbal communication is generally important for the politicians specifically in the time of the emergence of a crisis. The present article is aimed at looking into leadership communicative strategies,, gender stereotypes and identities as represented in Coronavirus lockdown speeches delivered by the two prime ministers of New Zealand and Britain and the Chancellor of Germany in March 2020. The study shows that sympathy and convergence as female linguistic stereotypes are deeply nested in Ardern’s and Merkel’s speech. While Johnson’s speech contains elements of the above-mentioned female stereotype, it is also marked by contest, rivalry and dominance. “We” is the most frequent identity activated in the three speeches, however the frequency of inclusive “we” is significantly higher in Ardern’s speech while exclusive “we” is dominant in Johnson’s and Merkel stands in between. The study suggests thorough consideration and application of linguistic choices and decisions by politicians and codification of the discursive regularities by discourse analysts which could lead into promoting political rhetoric. Additionally, the article speculates the emergence of a new effective political rhetoric which questions the normative so-called dominant “male” political discourse.

The purpose of the present research is to investigate three Persian derivational suffixes ‘-zɑr’, ‘-kæde’ and ‘-estɑn’ from a construction-based perspective and to analyze their various formal and semantic aspects. The study applies the framework of Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010, 2018) to address the word-formation patterns based on the notions of ‘construction’ and ‘constructional schema’ and explain their polysemy using the notion of ‘constructional subschema’. The research data are adapted from author’s own morphological corpus (including more than 12000 Persian compound and affixed words), Farhang-e Emlaee Khatt-e Farsi (Sadeghi & Zandi-Moghadam, 2012) and Farhang-e Zānsoo (Reverse Dictionary, Keshani 1993) which include 187 derivative words with the three aforementioned suffixes. The results reveal that in order to explain the polysemy of word-formation patterns of these suffixes, we need to adopt the idea of hierarchical lexicon and the notion of constructional subschemas so that we can consider distinct meanings as different subschemas. These subschemas are at different levels of abstraction and are related to a more abstract, high-order schema. This is called constructional polysemy, a kind of polysemy explained not at the level of concrete words, but rather at the level of abstract constructional schemas.

The Iranian time and the Persian language concepts have been condensed and accumulated by the plurality and accelerated events of the last hundred years. The semantic chaos is manifested in a lexical field of a concept where apparently synonymous words compete. Understanding these semantic ambiguities and latent relationships of power and ideology in discourses generating these words require analyzing different semantic layers accumulated in various temporal layers of contemporary history of socio-political concepts of Persian language. As such, the present study aims to develop a theoretical model to show how a particular concept in a particular historical period is signified by different words and how these words experience semantic changes and how situations accelerate the emergence, spread and wane of a word or concept. Additionally, the theoretical model attempts to understand the struggle and convergences of words in a field and their intertextual relationships in order to reach those conflicting moments in the contemporary history in which a discourse wins and in the light of that victory, makes a particular situation hegemonic. In the present paper, we propose an analytical model in which Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis plays the main role but two complementary approaches from semantics and history, i.e. lexical field by Jost Trier and conceptual history by Reinhart Koselleck, are applied as well to explore contemporary socio-political concepts. We believe that applying this model could clarify the ideologies behind each concept and word and make the “present” more understandable.

Affixation is one of the two main word-formation processes in Persian. The suffix ‘-ɑr’ is a nominal (or adjectival) suffix in Persian which is believed by most researchers to express the subject/agent (like xæridɑr ‘buyer’), object/patient (like gereftɑr ‘captive’) or infinitive (like ræftar ‘behavior’) meaning. In Cognitive Grammar (Langacker, 2008, 2009) and Construction Morphology (Booij, 2010, 2016) word-formation patterns are considered to be constructional schemas, i.e. schematic representations of morphological constructions. Constructions are pairings of form and meaning. The form pole of a construction includes morpho−syntactic and phonological properties. The meaning pole of a construction comprises semantic properties (conceptual structure), pragmatic properties and discourse properties. Cognitive Grammar posits that an expression invokes a set of cognitive domains as the basis for its meaning, i.e. as the content to be construed. Therefore, the meaning of a linguistic expression depends on two key notions of ‘cognitive domain’ and ‘construal’. A cognitive domain is a coherent area of conceptualization which provides the conceptual base for the meaning of a linguistic expression. The term construal refers to human manifest ability to conceive and express the same situation or event in alternate ways.

The present research aims to explore the suffix ‘-ɑr’ within the framework of Cognitive Grammar and Construction Morphology and tries to identify its various constructional schemas and subschemas. Furthermore, it attempts to investigate cognitive domains that underlie the meaning of each subschemas and to analyze the role of construal in formation of each subschemas.
Study questions: the study questions are: (1) what are constructional schemas and subschemas of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ and how is hierarchical relationships among them?(2) What cognitive domain(s) underlie the meaning of each subschema?(3) Which cognitive processes do play determinant role in formation of these (sub) schemas?

Empirically, the paper adopts corpus-based method and theoretically, it adopts cognitive and construction-based approach. The data include a corpus of 38 derivational words having the suffix ‘-ɑr’ extracted from the authors own morphological corpus (including more than 10000 complex words) and Farhang-e Zansoo (Keshani, 1993).Analysis: Analysis of research data showed that derivatives of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ belong to different constructional schemas. The schematic-constructional network of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ is represented in Figure 1. As is shown in the figure, ‘-ɑr’ appears in six different subschemas, in five of which the base of derivation is past stem of a verb while in the other the base is a noun. The conceptual base of the five subschemas that have a verb stem as their base is the cognitive domain of ‘processes. The difference among these subschemas is that each subschema profiles a different aspect of the conceptual base. In other words, the difference among them is due to the key notion of ‘profiling’. In the subschema with a noun as the base of derivation, the conceptual base is the cognitive domain of ‘relation’.Figure 1: The schematic-constructional network of the suffix ‘-ɑr’ in Persian

Results of the study show that the suffix ‘-ɑr’, which is added to past stems of verbs or nouns, can appear in six different constructional subschemas to indicate the cognitive domains of process, agenthood, aspect and relation. These subschemas are:1) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The human agent who perform the process of SEMi]j> 2) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The non-human agent (or instrument) which perform the process of SEMi]j>3) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The act of doing the process of SEMi]j>4) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The result of the process of SEMi]j>5) <[[x](Vpast)i -ɑr]Aj ↔ [The property of being affected by the process of SEMi]j>6) <[[x]Ni -ɑr]Nj ↔ [The thing closely related to SEMi]j>The findings reveal that the cognitive process of ‘construal’ and especially its two aspects of ‘profiling’ and ‘specification’ have a determinant role in the formation of these constructional subschemas.

Today the UN general assembly plays the role of a tribune to achieve general diplomatic goals, and the leaders of nations take full advantages of this opportunity to communicate with the international media and to negotiate with the officials of other countries. The present research attempts to analyze President Rouhani’s speech at the UN General Assembly in 2017 based on James Paul Gee’s (2014, 2018) discourse analysis approach. The results show that Rouhani has focused on eight central issues in his discourse: (1) Democracy and human rights; (2) Moderation; (3) Cultural and religious diversity; (4) Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) and response to violation of it; (5) Interaction and negotiation; (6) Iran missile power; (7) Terrorism support by USA; and (8) Iran economical capacity. The main reason to foreground these issues is the current debates in the world and intertextuality with president Trump’s UN speech. These findings also reveal that the most prominent identities in Rouhani’s speech are Iran and Iranian nation and the most important connection is between peace and security on one hand and development and progress of nations on the other. Also, the legal system can be considered as the dominant sign system and knowledge in Rouhani’s speech.

During the last three decades, code-switching has been one of the most interesting issues in the field of sociolinguistics. Code-switching is a language contact phenomenon which can be seen in many bi/multilingual societies. Various definitions are suggested for code-switching that one cannot easily find a common point among them. Therefore, it is necessary to try to find a practical and comprehensive definition or a systematic classification of the existing definitions. The relationship between code-switching and other language contact phenomena is important as well. In the present study, we deal with the issue of code-switching and its various definitions, its previous studies, its relationship to other language contact phenomena (such as bi/multilingualism, linguistic borrowing, code-mixing, interference and mixed language), its functions as well as the advantages of studying it. This research is a part of a wider research project dealing with various aspects of code-switching which its other parts will be presented in the near future.

The suffix ‘-gɑr’ is a nominal and adjectival suffix in Persian which is believed by most researchers to express the subjective (agentive) meaning. The purpose of the present research is to explore this suffix within the framework of two theories of Construction Morphology and Cognitive Grammar in order to provide a cognitive and constructional account of the formation of words with this suffix. Empirically, the paper adopts a corpus-based method and theoretically, it adopts a cognitive and constructional approach. The data include a corpus of 29 derivational words having the suffix ‘-gɑr’ extracted from the authors’ own morphological corpus (including more than 10000 complex words) and Farhang-e Zansoo (Reverse Dictionary, Keshani 1993). The results of the research reveal that the suffix ‘-gɑr’ can appear in six different constructional subschemas to express the cognitive domains of agenthood, voice and relation. The results also show that the two cognitive process of construal and categorization have crucial roles in the formation of these constructional subschemas and the semantic category of the suffix ‘-gɑr’.

The purpose of the present research is to analyze the Persian suffix ‘- ɑne’ and to examine its various structural and semantic/functional aspects. The study adopts a construction-based approach and uses the framework of Construction Morphology theory which tries to explain the word formation patterns using the notions of “construction” and “constructional schemas” and to shows hierarchical relations among constructional schemas and subschemas in a systematic manner. The data includes 944 derivative words with the suffix ‘-ɑne’ which are adapted from author’s own morphological corpus (including more than 10000 Persian compound and affixed words), Farhang-e Zānsoo (Reverse Dictionary, Keshani 1993) and Farhang-e Pasvand dar Zabān-e Fārsi (The Dictionary of Persian Suffixes, Ravaghi 2009). The findings of the research show that the suffix “-ɑne” has a remarkable semantic diversity and can appears in 12 constructional subschemas to form new nouns, adjectives or adverbs. This polysemy is not explainable at the level of concrete words but at the level of abstract constructional schemas, and therefore is called “constructional polysemy”.

As a class of linguistic tools, reveal the user's personal emotions and feelings as well as sociolinguistic attitudes of the society. The objectives of the present study were to classify common curse words used in Shoushtar city, Iran, and to examine the effect of social variables of age, gender, ethnicity and education on its usage. The present descriptive-analytic research was carried out by direct observation and a questionnaire. From among 160 examinees, 140 answered the questions completely and their answers were analyzed by means of statistic tests. The study indicate that both women and men of Shoushtar use 4 classes of curse words when they are angry or upset. The results indicate that from among the above-mentioned social variables, age and gender have a significant effect on the use of these words (P= 0.015); men use more curse words than women and 15-19 year-old examinees use them more than the other age-groups. Moreover, the variables of ethnicity and education have no significant effect on the use of curse words in Shoushtari language society(P= 0.89).

This is a part of a broader research intended to study the European national anthems from a linguistics perspective by using Laclau & Mouffe's model accompanied by Van Dijk's approach, through a number of linguistic tools. This research is trying to answer the following questions: What are the nodal points of each country´s national anthem? What are the similarities and differences found in the national anthems of the countries under investigation from a linguistic discourse perspective? To this end, the national anthems of 30 selected European countries were reviewed. Among the texts of national anthems, 46 nodal points were obtained as the main concern of all people. These nodal points include war, respect for the past times, describing the nature of the land, freedom, unity, praying and futurism. The findings, based on linguistic discourse analysis indicate that present time is used significantly more than past and the future. 14 European countries (46.66% of all selected European countries) in their national anthems have emphasized on the binary opposition of "us" versus "them", and the remaining 16 (53.33%) only praise themselves and believe in theirs, not against others. The frequency of positive words (euphemism) in (96.66% of the European countries´ national anthems) is greater than negative words (dysphemism). The France national anthem has used more negative words (dysphemism) than positive words (euphemism).

Extensive studies in the fields of culture and parenting in recent years have shown that parent’s goals and values of parenting lead to differences in their parental behaviors. This study was designed to observe Iranian mothers’ interaction with their children in a playing situation. This study was a qualitative study in which 30 pairs of mothers and children (15 girls and 15 boys) were selected purposely.To observe the parent-child interaction, a playing situation was designed and recorded by video camera. Observational data were analyzed based on qualitative analysis methods. Through coding and categorizing the observed data of the parent-child interaction, verbal (positive, negative and facilitator) and nonverbal (positive, negative and communicative) behavioral patterns were extracted and named by the investigator. Based on scoring the determined codes, facilitatorverbal behaviors and negative nonverbal behaviors were the most frequent. The mothers’ behavior that facilitated child’s playing process and diminished child’s practical and mental activities were named facilitator behaviors, and were the most frequent among Iranian mothers. Based on the same previous research, Iranian mothers’ parenting behaviors are similar to those of Japanese, Chinese and Latin mothers rather than American, British and Australian mothers.