پریسا رضایی فدشکویه

This research aims to identify the difference in the views of the different spectrums of the Muslim Brotherhood towards the Islamic resistance, and seeks to answer the following question: "What is the relationship between the different aspects of the Muslim Brotherhood with the Islamic resistance and what is the framework for thinking, social behavior and political construction they propose in this field?" The hypothesis is: "The existence of different schools of thought within the Muslim Brotherhood (Qutbi and reformist spectrum) and the creation of several internal factions and a generation gap (the flow of elders and youth) caused by the revolutionary events of the Arab Spring caused a difference of opinion between the different currents in the Brotherhood regarding examples of Islamic resistance. The present article, in the manner of historical sociology and with the tools of collecting documentary and library information, seeks to identify the differences of opinion between different spectrums of the Muslim Brotherhood movement regarding examples of Islamic resistance, and specifically, to introduce four intellectual spectrums that are effective in the views of the Muslim Brotherhood, including: Hassan al-Banna School , Azharist school, Qutbi school and Wahhabi-Salafi school. Also, studies the views and opinions of the two main intellectual spectrums in the Muslim Brotherhood (reformist and Qutbi) regarding examples of Islamic resistance against modernity and the manifestations of Western civilization, the issue of revolution and reforms, the issue of Islamic Jihad, as well as their view and interaction with the axis of resistance and Islamic revolution. In addition, it shows that the deepening of the generation gap in the Muslim Brotherhood after the 2011 revolutionary events and the 2013 coup led to the formation of three Brotherhood currents with three different approaches to resistance and revolution: "relatively traditional Qutbis", "reformers critical of the regulatory system, but moderate" and "youth with a revolutionary and resistance approach".

Latin America has long been the birthplace of social movements. New social movements have emerged in the heart of the political space of those countries of the region that were dominated by the military regimes, and the relevance of these movements lies in their struggles on the way to democracy. Based on the Frankfurt school and using the theories of new social movements, this research has investigated the impact of these new social movements on the power relations in the political space of Brazil and Argentina, two powerful countries in the Latin American region. According to the Frankfurt school, new social movements are the product of the continuity of domination relations during modenism, especially late capitalism, and their main mission is to eliminate the mechanisms of supremacy and oppression. A descriptive-analytical study in the context of five new social movements, namely the women's movement, neighborhood associations and grassroots church groups in Brazil, human rights groups in Argentina and environmental activist associations in both countries shows that the deteriorating patterns of traditional political institutionalism during the 1960s to 1990s in Brazil and Argentina created a power vacuum, and consequently the new social movements of these two countries offered political alternatives based on the people's power. These movements not only challenged power relations, but also helped to the empowerment and politicization of the people at the local level, a process that continued with greater vigor in the following decades. In sum, these people-based power relations have created informal neighborhood and local networks, and supportive associations that in turn change and reinforce social life.

At the beginning of the 21st century, Latin America experienced an unprecedented wave of victories by leftist presidential candidates. Turning left is a significant development in an area where strong neoliberal political and economic policies emerged after the Cold War. The main purpose of this study is to explain the various causes and factors for the emergence of new leftist governments in Latin America. The main question of this study is, "How did the new leftist governments come to power in Latin America, and what were the factors influencing the left turn in the region?". The hypothesis is that "various national, regional, and international factors have contributed to the left turn in Latin America, and the rise of these new leftist has had significant national and regional implications". The conceptual framework of this research is the World-Systems Theory of John Foran and to study the details, we have used the descriptive-analytical research method. According to the results of this study, the return of leftism in Latin America in the period 1998-2010 was due to long-term structural factors, such as inequality and institutional democracy; There have also been short-term factors such as the inefficiency of the neoliberal economic model in the region and the economic crisis of 1998-2002. The boom in basic goods after 2002 also provided the resources needed to consolidate the dominance of left-wing parties.

Since 1377, Latin America has experienced two waves of "turning to the left" and "taking power of neo-leftist governments"; Despite this, neo-leftist governments in Latin America have many differences from each other. In this research, while knowing these new left governments and their national and regional policies, the complex and unprecedented political evolution of the "turn to the left" in Latin America, which includes a wide range of heterogeneous processes in more than Twenty Latin American countries will be examined. The current research seeks to answer this question, "What policies have neo-leftist governments in Latin America pursued in their internal governance and regional and international relations, and what are the effects of the pink current wave at the regional level?". The hypothesis intended to answer this question is that the "turn to the left" has not only changed the rulers in Latin America, but has caused a transformation in the way of governance and changes in social and economic policies in the region. This wave is the main factor of regional convergence and the initiator of new policies in which the role of the government increases in development, redistribution and social welfare. The conceptual framework of this research is the typology of leftism in Latin America presented by Aston Levitsky and Kenneth Roberts and it has used the descriptiveanalytical research method and the study of library sources and data.

New social movements in Latin America are working to achieve various political, economic, and social goals and have been able to redefine power relations in Latin America. The subject of this study is to examine the emergence and activism of these social movements and how the political space in Latin America has evolved as a result of their activities. This research studies new social movements in Latin America, including religious movements, women's movements, ethnic and indigenous movements, the neighborhood association and the environmental movements. In this study, the main question is, "How has the activism of new social movements affected the political space of Latin America?" The research method is descriptive - analytical and is based on the study of library resources. The purpose of this study is to study the current situation of new social movements in Latin America, their functions and achievements and examine their interaction with power factors in the region and how they affect the Latin American political climate. According to the results of this study, the rise of new social movements has had a significant impact on the political space of Latin America and it has led to greater participation of people in socio-political activities. These social movements have offered political alternatives to the "power of the people" and have helped to empower and politicize people at the local levels.