alireza ashtari tafreshi

During the early Islamic centuries, the city of Jurjan near the northeastern plateau of Iran was considered an example of the constructive interaction of Iranian - Islamic cultural elements; Despite the destruction of the historical site of the city, this research with a library method and historical analysis method has been able to understand the interactions of these cultural elements by using the most important sources and related researches . The result of this research has shown that during the early Islamic centuries, especially during the Pilgrim era, the constructive coexistence of Iranian cultural carriers with Arab immigrants in this city has caused both groups to achieve their scientific and literary goals and the prosperity of this city . The regional policies of Ziyarians have led to the revival of the model of Iranian culture , helping to revive the Persian language, Iranian traditions and scientific brilliance; At the same time, in a situation of environmental peace, the scientific activities of families mostly descended from Arab immigrants, such as Ismaili and Mahlebi, in certain areas, have led to the development of Islamic sciences, especially the flourishing of Hadith science. On the other hand, attention to Arabic rhetoric has been the common feature of both groups . This research has also studied the descriptive geography, demographic, religious and localities of this city in order to better assess the role of human and urban geography in the growth, development and scientific and literary developments

Musnad al-Riḍā (as) is a collection of hadiths of Imam Riḍā (as) which, apart from the validation of hadiths, contains valuable data about social history, especially the daily life of Iranians, Muslims and Shiites. This research with a library method and a descriptive-analytical method and using the social history approach to recognize, extract and analyze social history data including daily life, i.e. happiness and mourning, leisure and entertainment, naturalismand the environment, health and grooming, clothing and food in this work and based on the conceptual framework of Bourdieu's discourse fields. This research has shown that the behaviors of Iranian culture in the first two centuries of Islam were widely reflected in this work and except for the cases of a number such as drinking wine, consumption of pork meat, games such as chess and backgammon are not limited by Islamic behavior and are not limited by specific elements such as the promotion of rituals and religious occasions such as Ghadīr holidays and the mourning of Imam Hosein (as), and in general, in other cultural and social aspects, there has been harmony and compatibility between the ancient culture of Iranians and the preaching culture of the Islamic religion or the two fields of Iranian and Islamic discourse.

Qawānīn al-wizāra (Laws of the Vizierate) is a seminal work authored by Abū al-Ḥasan al-Māwardī (d. 450 AH), a distinguished Muslim scholar renowned for his expertise in hadith and political theory during the fifth century AH. This book delineates the responsibilities and conduct expected of viziers, while also elucidating the administrative structure of the vizierate system. Al-Māwardī's incorporation of both adaptation of Prophetic hadiths and direct or external intertextuality in relation to them, particularly in the form of citing Prophet Muhammad's sayings, significantly enriched the qualitative substance of this work. This study employs a methodological approach blending library research with analytic-descriptive techniques. It centers on identifying shared themes or cohesive nodes between the adapted hadiths and the content of Laws of the Vizierate, thereby examining the role of Prophetic hadiths in shaping al-Māwardī’s political thought in this treatise. Through thematic analysis of the text of Laws of the Vizierate and its intertextual references to hadiths, we discern the interconnectedness between them, revealing shared conceptual categories that emanate from al-Māwardī’s political ideology. This facilitates an exploration of his objective in reconciling the text with its intertextuality. The research findings indicate that al-Māwardī, in his endeavor to provide guidance and counsel for governmental officials, not only drew upon their behavioral patterns but also extensively utilized Prophetic hadiths across various themes addressed in Laws of the Vizierate, including the structural prerequisites for effective governance and the foundational principles of society. This strategic integration served to enhance the authority of his political prescriptions. Furthermore, al-Māwardī skillfully employed the thematic diversity of hadiths to enrich the discourse on governance through the power of literary communication.

Sleep is a state of comfort and relaxation that occurs as a result of the cessation of external senses in humans and animals. A dream is what is seen in during sleeping; Some dreams are honest. This research has analyzed the themes of the honest dreams of the Prophet Mohammad and their influence on his decisions with a descriptive- analytical method. This study indicates that dreams have been very important in the culture of Arabs before and after the advent of Islam, like other neighboring nations. Emphasizing that revelation and ascension were not realized in the state of sleep and true dreams, but both occurred in wakefulness, the article shows that the theme of the prophet's dreams was generally about the fate of people or wars and events and in some way predicting future events. Sometimes, that holiness used an honest dream to validate his words, but often, he did not consider the dreams as a criterion of authenticity for his companions and did not force them to do something based on the dreams.

Qawanin al-Wizarah is one of the most significant works of Abul Hasan al-Mawirdi, a policy theoretical scholar of the 5th century AH, in which he presented a constructed image of the government; however, this image is not purely theoretical, but also that is to a great amount image of government with its essential working parts and process. Understanding the relationship between the variables active in the writer's thoughts and society with the content of this work is the main problematic issue of the current research. Despite the importance of Qawanin al-Wizara in the heritage of Islamic political thought and Islamic statesmanship, this work has been less studied by contemporary researchers when it has been more in the shadow of al-Mawirdi's more well-known other work, Ahkam al-Sultaniyyah, so usually scholars have not paid enough attention to Qawanin al-Wizarah`s significance. For this reason, the current research aims to identify the main characteristics of an efficient government in this important work of statesmanship. This research by applying the thematic analysis method has tried to explain the main factors of an efficient government in Qawanin al-Wizarah. This study has been done through a library method when its main concentration has been on the Arabic text of Qawanin al-Wizarah. A Part of the achievement of this research is the understanding of more than 300 themes of Qawanin al-Wizarah the work has been mainly constructed; The result of their analysis shows the division of themes into the categories of crisis themes, crisis causes, crisis solutions, and efficient government or crisis-free (ideal) government by them the work has been presented.Our final step is the attempt to understand the achievement of thematic analysis of the text through the conceptual approach of Thomas Spragens in his book Understanding Political Theory (New York, 1976). By this last step, it becomes clear that al-Mawirdi considered the political crisis of the 5th century AH as the lack of structural, behavioral, and program procedures for government administration, as the main issue of Spragens is finding political-social crisis behind motivations of writing every original book in political theory.In this step, it became clear that al-Mawirdi employed all his themes in his book to solve the crisis, when he carefully drew dozens of structural models, organizational behavior, and government programs for the ruler, Wazir, and some other main figures of government to use them to be well guided throughout the way of governing. Spragens believes that the model of "disorganization - trying to return to order" causes the emergence of political thought in the mind of political thinkers to transition from crisis to ideal.It seems that al-Mawirdi considered disorder to be the cause of the inefficiency of the government, and he made it possible to achieve an efficient government through a theoretical production of organizational order. From the early Islamic period, the experience of the government system in Sassanid Iran was transferred to the Islamic Caliphate and caused its prosperity. But during al-Mawardi`s lifetime, the government system had suffered from internal problems and degeneration;The historical books of this period are full of all kinds of narrations about very ridiculous conflicts between government officials, such that due to a little annoyance and greed, the leaders of the government used to draw swords at each other, and the government treasures were easily looted. The Turkish generals, who were considered the special and main troops of the caliph, were also the main threat against the government structure.In this period, the dominance of the Turkish generals over the usual routines of the Abbasid caliphate, which was previously based on the regulations of Iranian Sassanid manner, had caused the deterioration of the government's performance. Thus, the hierarchy and structure, professional ethics, and organizational behavior were also destroyed in court. In such circumstances, the Qawanin al-Wizarah, focusing on the themes of regulations, had been a theoretical support to overcome this internal degeneration of the government and a response to the needs of the author`s era. The final result of this research has analyzed the relationship between the era and the text which was the solution to the crisis that had been the reproduction of the concept of efficient government.

In the second half of the 7th century AH, the series of wars between the Mamluks of Egypt against the last Crusader rulers of Syria led to the defeat of the Crusaders and the dismantling of most of their bases in the Levant. During these wars, two peace agreements were reached between the parties. Analyzing the motivations of this period of crusades based on these two peace agreements is the main concern of the present historical-analytical research that besides referring to the text of the peace agreements benefited from other related historical sources and research. These peace agreements were between two Mamluk sultans, i.e., Baybars (658-676 AH) and Qalawun (678-689 AH) with a group of crusaders known as the Knight Hospitallers or Bayt al-Isbataryyah. The agreements have been narrated in Nahayah al-Arab by Nuwayri (677-732 AH) and in a more complete form in Subh al-`A`sha by Qalqashandi (756-791 AH). The findings show that, unlike the first period of the Crusades, where the motivations of the Europeans as the initiators of the war have been narrated to be religious (Christian), in the late period of wars, the motivations were mainly economic (trade), territorial expansionism, and trying to preserve political-military authority.

In the 6th and 7th centuries AH, nearly forty Madrasahs were established in the two important cities of Damascus and Aleppo. This number of Madrasahs in only two cities, when compared from a quantitative point of view to the number of previous Madrasahs in Islamic civilization, especially the Nizamiyyah Madrasahs in a significantly higher number of Islamic cities, shows the significant point of the importance of the phenomenon of Madrasahs of Damascus and Aleppo. This phenomenon has become worthy of study in terms of motivations and effective factors in the construction of these Madrasahs. The present research has obtained the descriptive-historical information of these Madrasahs by examining the most important historical sources of this field with a library method; Then, by using Pierre Bourdieu's theory of capital, with the method of qualitative analysis, it tried to match the phenomenon of Madrasahs with the principles of this theory; Based on this theory, Madrasahs as cultural capitals are supposed as the appearance of institutionalized cultural capital to play a role in the development of the social field of the religious discourse of the Shafi'i and Hanafi sects, a factor for attracting respect towards the Zengi rulers and as a result, the development of their symbolic capital by which the continuity and increasing of their soft legitimacy have been recognized in the society.

Piracy or the use of violence by various types of ships or vessels to take the property of the passengers of other ships or vessels has been one of the important maritime threats from the past until today. During the Middle Ages until the 19th century, due to the flourishing sea trade, in the Indian Ocean, this phenomenon was widespread, but few scattered reports of it have remained. This research aims to explain the geographical and cultural relationship between the history and modern forms of piracy in the Indian Ocean, to provide a constructive analysis of the roots of piracy nowadays. Based on this, in this research, with a library method and a descriptive-analytical method, and by referring to the most important historical sources and research, scattered reports of piracy during the first to thirteenth centuries AH were analyzed. At the same time, by using analytical studies in cultural criminology, an attempt has been made to analyze this phenomenon from the perspective of deterministic theories and subcultures. Thus, it has been shown that the geography and aspects of the piracy culture in the Indian Ocean are consistent with this phenomenon today. It has also been shown that the inclusive Iranian governments have played the most effective role in fighting this phenomenon; it has been suggested that in today's approach to the phenomenon of piracy, the cultural view of the social and political roots of this phenomenon should be considered. In dealing with it, the fundamental methods of the cultural solution should be used in confrontation with the phenomenon, together with legal and military actions. It has also been suggested that the Iranian government should play a trans-regional cultural effort to revive its historical role in controlling this phenomenon.

This historical research based on the study of primary and secondry sources, is studying four institutes founded by Saladin/Salah al-Ddin Ayyubi (d. 589AH), two in Cairo and two others in Jerusalem.  The research has attempted to analyse the factors of appearance of these institutions, according to the religious policies of Ayyubids. It shows also the historical influence of these institutions. In general, these subjects have been studied in the article: political factors  of appearance of Salahiyyahs like the political legitimacy; religuos factors of appearance of Salahiyyahs like the motivations on behalf of Ash`ari propaganda and the subversion aganint othor religions; military (Jihadi) factors of appearance of Salahiyyahs i.e. or the propaganda for making wars by muslims against crusaders; and the process factors of appearance of Salahiyyahs i.e. the social – historical diffusion of Madrasah and Khanqah and their cultural life from the east (Iran and Iraq) into west (Syria and Egypt).

The twenty-two years of Saladin's rule, who is the founder of Ayyubid dynasty and the first sultan of Egypt and the Levant, witnessed tens of his battles against the Crusaders. Some of his battles happened against Muslim emirs in Egypt, the Levant, and Northern Iraq. The present paper, drawing on just war theory, aims to explore the findings of its historical study of the Islamic sources and some Christian research in order to provide an answer to the question of to what extent Saladin's military conduct and policies are compatible with the principles of just war. The results of this descriptive-analytical study indicate that Saladin's military conduct is more in line with the realistic theory of war rather than with the concept and principles of just war theory because while the latter consider just war a legal war to achieve peace by avoiding cruel treatment of civilians, prisoners, and the aggressed environments, Saladin has fought wars with the aim of attaining more dominance, accompanied by revenge and unconventional invasions destructive for the civilians. Therefore, in spite of his observance of ethical rules in many wars, cruelty and seeking power is observed in his other wars.

Although Yahya b. Umm-i-Tuwail has been introduced in traditional and historical sources as the Bab of Shiite Imams, but it is not clear for whom exactly he had been the Bab, Imam Sadjdjad or Imam Baqir, 4th and 5th Shiite Imams? So, this is a matter of deference between Imamiyyah and Nusayriyyah. To solve this problem with a vivid answer, we should at first, study Yahya`s life in History and then, it is necessary to study the traditions transmitted through or by Yahya; contents of these traditions, Yahya`s transmitters and his sources, all are of high importance. By these studies, we will find out the detailed history of Yahya`s life and several dark parts of Shiite history. As a conclusion, we will understand that not only Yahya had been a Bab for Shiite Imams, nor even being a Bab was a historical reality in Imamiyyah, at least in the case of Yahya; this subject is nowadays a matter of discussion in academic societies.

The two terms of Monazara (debate) and Mozakara (negotiation), from the roots of Nazar and Zakar, have been used abundantly in various texts and resources. This research seeks to index the application and meaning of these two terms while studying special historical evidences and examples which show that these two, especially the term Monazara, had conceptual changes in various periods and the lack of knowledge from the examples of each concept have caused misunderstanding in their meaning with other semantic positions of these words. On the other hand, this question also arises that in the context of historical changes, which session exactly refer as Monazara and Mozakara? This article will clarify the exact definition of the lexical meaning and colloquial complexities and historical changes of these two words. The main method in this research is to make comparative study of these two terms and their implications and analyzing the existing historical data. This research, will achieve a comprehensive cognition of the literal and functional meanings of these two frequently used terms that have been used for centuries in various Islamic texts and indices, and sometimes in very confusing and vague textual Interpretation.

Imam Ali ibn Husayn was living in a special period, culturally and socially speaking; a period which could be known as the revival of Jahiliyya Paradigm. Though in such a situation, Imam was simultaneously managing the cultural situation and recreating the real Islamic culture. In this way, Imam was using two strategies: exposing the cultural nature of Umayyad Caliphate and designing a cultural system. His main strategy was based on the relationship between "character and culture". Imam, by recreating of Islamic culture, affected the people in his household and then, they were able to recreate Islamic culture in the society. Now, we have decided to study this strategy here, in order to be useful for other situations and societies.

Historical geography and history of economy are fields of historical studies which can be studied simultaneously in any specific geography. In this way, we can also study the influence of geographical factors on the economy of the region. Unfortunately the absence of documents, archives and statistics, is a reality in some important parts of the history of Iran, especially during the early and middle Islamic ages and this will cause a real inability in studying the economical and geographical history of different parts of Iran such as Dinawar; however, this article will try to study the information about the region and the city of historical Dinawar and by analyzing these data will manage to understand the relationship between this region`s historical geography and its historical economy.