alireza shaikhi

Cognitive linguistics is a relatively new approach in the field of linguistics, focusing not only on the theoretical aspects of language but also on its interaction with other phenomena such as the mind, rationality, environment, and social experiences. One of the central topics in cognitive semantics is the concept of "Conceptual metaphor." In this approach, metaphor is not merely a rhetorical device but rather a tool of thought—a phenomenon in which one conceptual domain is expressed through another. Religious and supplicatory texts are rich sources of cognitive metaphors, as they often deal with abstract and non-experiential concepts, which are structured using metaphorical systems. This study, using a descriptive-analytical method, seeks to explore the metaphor of the Arabic term "Raḥmat" in Ṣaḥīfah Sajjadiyyah and its Qur'anic origins, noting that many Qur'anic expressions are reflected throughout the supplications of this text. The research reveals that the abstract concept of the term "Raḥmat" in the epistemological system of Ṣaḥīfah Sajjadiyyah is shaped by experiential cognition and conceptual metaphors. This systematization and embodiment in Ṣaḥīfah Sajjadiyyah closely align with the Qur'anic verses. The most prominent method of concretizing the concept of "Raḥmat" in Ṣaḥīfah Sajjadiyyah, similar to the Qur'an, is through existential conceptual metaphors of "substance" and "container." In this collection, "Raḥmat" is conceptualized through domains such as shelter, destination, rain, treasure, taste, and others. It is also occasionally depicted through spatial orientation, where divine mercy is symbolized as being in an elevated position, while divine punishment and affliction are associated with lower positions—emphasizing the precedence of mercy [Raḥmat] over punishment.

Grotesque, the artistic-literary discourse, makes technical arrangements for the creation of heterogeneous emotional mixtures and the creation of all-encompassing uncertainty, the decipherment of his long-awaited scenes, leading to the technical and content enrichment of the work. The Grotesque is at the forefront of the battle with the certainty and it’s the herald of an unfinished world. In the light of the philosophical content of its worldview, it reveals the blunt face of the unattainable world in the form of a simultaneous representation of the two-dimensional contrasts. Bakhtinian Grotesque approach focuses on the merry roots of popular literature, in the form of features: inconsistency of dual contrasts, exaggeration, corporeal centeredness, degrading, aggressive language, and absolute anomalies, It has undeniable benefits by enabling the recognition of the capabilities of the narrative text by objectifying their truth-seeking worldview and anti-dogma libertarianism.The novel “The Game of Forgetting”, by the Moroccan “Mohamed Barrada”, is a center of experimentalism on the arrangements of polyphonic literature, especially the Grotesque, and has created significant prototypes in this field. Literary representation of Grotesque characteristics the following Grotesque manifestations: disharmony, abnormal corporeal centeredness, Grotesque atmosphere, erotic abnormalities, profanity and billingsgate, and the theme of madness were examined and analyzed in response to the prevailing spirit of one-sidedness and illusion of omniscience.Mohamed Barrada, a pioneering author whose novels are indebted to Bakhtin's discourse theory, recognizes the carnival-Grotesque tradition in his laudatory critiques, He has adapted some of the preparations of Grotesque realism to his masterpiece of narrative, and has paved the way for the benefit of the rich but veiled Moroccan popular culture.he engaged in literary modeling under the sub-categories of dialogism, For example, he has attempted to create scences focusing on Grotesque wonders, as well as the philosophical and ideological dimensions considered by Bakhtin, And his creative scenes and images each somehow pursue the goals of Grotesque discourse. Barrada is also one of the Arab exprimentalist novelists, and Grotesque's discourse, intersects with the new exprimentalist novel, on the subject of border crossing and transgression, norm-breaking, non-dissemination of consideration, embracing with all possibilities and the rejection of pre-determined categories. The main question of this paper is how Grotesque elements and images have been effective in inducing the ideas of truth-seeking and exposing Grotesque discourse and adapting the concepts of pluralism and confronting the serious tone of the Domineering official culture. In pursuing the research question, we first identified the theoretical topics of Grotesque and then examined the Grotesque effects of “The Game of Forgetting” and analyzed the inductive concepts of its examples.

In analyzing Grotesque examples, we have followed a descriptive-analytical method based on library data processing, and our focus has been on Bakhtin's Grotesque approach, based on the merry roots of popular literature, and in the form of features: inconsistency of dual contrasts, exaggeration, corporeal centeredness, degrading, aggressive language, and absolute anomalies, and by applying the method of technical critique and carefully examining the necessary techniques of a particular literary genre, we have sought the literary representation of Grotesque features in the form of Grotesque manifestations, including: disharmony, abnormal corporeal centeredness, Grotesque atmosphere, erotic abnormalities, profanity and billingsgate, and the theme of madness.

Examining the examples of each of the Grotesque features of “The Game of Forgetting”, we find:1. Expressing contradictions in the behavior and movements of the characters or the state of phenomena and being in a situation inconsistent with their position, in Barrada’s work, is a solution to create a heterogeneous and challenging mixture of emotions to discuss the idea of a fluid and possible world by rejecting necessary principles It is undisputedness and completeness.2. In the abnormal corporeal centeredness and extreme attention to the lower parts of the limbs, as the ways of communication with the earth and the material world, the principle of degradation is considered by the author to question the pretense of excellence and sanctity and deliberately highlighted distinctions and replaces the idea of equality and universal anti-class freedom.3. In Barrada’s Grotesque atmospheres, the induction of negative, harassing, and anxious emotional states, In addition to creating a heterogeneous emotional duality and laying the groundwork for Grotesque indecisiveness and indecision, somehow aims to normalize our view of the second half of life, the death, which is followed by a new birth. Sometimes this is done in the realm of sacred matters, such as the example of the Mushatfah.4. Erotic abnormalities are the culmination of the construction of emotional dichotomies and are tied to killing in order to intensify them. Another purpose - according to the narrator's groundworks in order to to raise the examples - is to set aside considerations in this area and expose it as a real part of life that requires a logical design to find a solution like other phenomena and should be known. That secrecy, as claimed by chaste purposes, is not the solution.5. The vilifications in language of Grotesque, by connecting the object to the lower extremities, acquires a destructive-reconstructive nature and so-called carnivalous, and with the help of the capabilities of the inferior culture, unlike the official repressive culture, creates creativity and behind the profanity, the liberating truth of freedom, Has lies. The deliberate choice of blasphemous concepts indicates a deliberate massification of the mass of ideas and images distorts the whole truth considered to be complete.

Thus Barrada, of an exemplary spirit of intolerance and rejection, seeks to recall the excluded elements and to combine heterogeneous elements and that allows another view of a world with a more orderly structure under the concept of relativity. And by projecting any indisputable ideas and dogmatic actions, and believing in the boundaries crossing and coexistence of phenomena, heralds high decisive values such as freedom, happiness, justice, accepting others, rejection of dogmatism and reconcile all the parts of the world again.Keywords: Grotesque, The Game of Forgetting, Degradation, Corporeal Centeredness, Billingsgate.

New studies in the content analysis of fiction and novels are as extensive as critical approaches and fictional texts. In this regard, social criticism is a subset of author-centric or hypertext criticism. This method of criticism does not accept the spontaneous appearance of literature and believes that literature is formed in the heart of the society; in fact, social conditions direct the author, the work of art and the audience. Social criticism is a literary study in which historical and social works and evidence fulfill a literary intellectual mission for the reader. This is a mission based on the structure of artistic narratives. If we use literature as a social document for a particular society, we can introduce the general outlines of a historical society in a given period. This is because literature is not only a reflection of the social process but also broader because it is the essence of history. Thus, the analysis of the relationship between literature and society is the basis for the emergence of social criticism of literature, and this approach is based on the structure of literature and society. This means the reflection of social issues in the literary work through the author's intellectual, doctrinal or social perspective. Accordingly, "the interaction between society and literature has always been the focus of humanities researchers. Ahmad Khalid Tawfiq is one of the pioneers of contemporary literature in the field of horror, fantasy and science fiction and has been able to create perfect works of fantasy and horror. His works also take an opportunity to criticize the society. This research analyzes the story of "The Myth of Al Naddaha " based on a social approach as well as literary and critical sources, especially social criticism. Ahmed Khalid Tawfiq is a contemporary Egyptian writer and one of the pioneers of horror literature in the Arab world. In the 1990s, he wrote a collection entitled "The Supernatural", which received much attention in the Arab world. One of the stories in this series is "The Myth of Al-Naddaha" which has a scary atmosphere. The author discusses some of the social issues of the Egyptian society in the last century, specifically the villages of Egypt. This article aims to discuss the story of "The Myth of Al Naddaha " based on social criticism in an analytical-descriptive manner. Ahmad Khalid Tawfiq, in his story, tried to show the reader some aspects of the backwardness of the Egyptian society by expressing some social issues especially in the rural society of this country. Ahmad Khalid Tawfiq is one of the pioneers of contemporary literature in the field of horror, fantasy and science fiction. He has created works full of fantasy and horror. On the side of his works, there is also room for criticism of the society. Based on a social approach and literary and critical sources, especially social criticism, this research, analyzes the story of "The Myth of Al-Naddaha" to answer the following questions: What social changes have taken place in the society during the author's period? What are the social problems that Ahmad Khalid Tawfiq has tried to clarify in his novel? What is the relationship between this novel and the society where the author has lived in? In "The Myth of Al Naddahah", it is clear that Ahmad Khalid Tawfiq paid attention to social issues in a literary way. Although the author writes horror and science fiction, in this story, he reflects the most important social problems in the Egyptian villages and issues related to poverty, superstition, deprivation and class conflicts in his story. Tawfiq believes that reform in a rural society is possible by educating the people and making them literate. In his opinion, it is not possible to escape solving the problems, but one must stand against them and face them. The main character of the myth of Al Naddahah is based on a scientific logic. In fact, this scientific logic is one of the most important human achievements in the last century, which is reflected in this story. Tawfiq expresses social problems, which is of great importance. As an educated man in the society, has has dealt with the most important problems faced by the Egyptian villagers. Since the audience of his stories is teenagers and young people, he has been able to make them aware of the social consequences of superstitions and the dangers that society may pose. He reminds them of the rapid advancement of science.

Stylistics is a form of analysis which is primarily concerned with the field of literature. It approaches a literary text from different aspects, one of which is syntactic analysis. The study of the syntactic structures can shed light on the links between the thoughts. Each person, depending on their mental characteristics and the subject at hand, makes use of a number of different syntactic features. The present feature seeks to shed light on syntactic forms resilience poetry, drawing on the works of three poets: Muin Bseiso, Mohammad al-fitoori, and Adnan al-Saegh. Since this form of poetry mirrors the thoughts and beliefs of the people living in one particular society, it is inevitably realistic, alive, and dynamic. Given the biological and cultural diversity of Arabic-speaking communities, this form of poetry can take many different linguistic and stylistic forms. This very issue calls for further studies and research on the style and language of the poets of resilience poetry. On the one hand, each poet has made use of a different style depending on the extent to which he has been affected by the status quo and socio-political changes of his country and each poet enjoys a style which differentiates him from other poets. Therefore, cultural, social, and political environment of these poets, their position and prominent role in the contemporary Arabic poetry, all of which bear solid themes, have led to their selection. Given the wide variety of syntactic structures, only nominal and verbal structures, tense, and Modality are of concern to the present research. The aim of the present research is to shed light on the aspects to which poets have resorted to achieve the common goal known as reliance poetry. Therefore, the main research problem is to identify and stylistic study of the syntactic structures of these three poets. In this way, the idiosyncratic style is identified along with the type of their interaction with language.The present study follows a descriptive -analytical-statistical approach. Twenty odes from each poet on the theme of homeland were selected. These odes were selected to shed light on how linguistic and stylistic components were made use of to express their thoughts and beliefs and best depict this form of literature.With regards to the results, it was found that Bseiso’s style is characterized by nominal structures with verbal predicates. The political position of this poet as the head of the Palestinian communist party leader. On the other hand, his physical presence in the fights against the Zionist enemies could be considered as factors that could lead to his usage of singular pronouns in nominal structures. al-fitoori has mostly utilized nominal structures and singular pronouns to express his thoughts and feelings in his initial poetical works. This is due to the grim social and political situation of his time when colonialists were looking to destroy their culture and identity. He also consolidates his being and presenxe by using such structures. However, verbal sentences in al-Saegh’s poetry are more frequent compared to Bseiso and al-fitoori's and can be considered as one of his stylistic features. This can be due to the narrative and storytelling aspect of his work. The expression of such concepts inevitably entails the usage of verbal structures.In al-Saegh’s works, tenses are either past or present. He does not seek to escape from the reality by depicting the old world; rather, he levels criticism at the current situation of the society that cannot create a link between its two different worlds. To disentangle from this bipolarity, he creates another world in the past tense. Such a style is an indirect mode of expression to express objections. However, Bseiso and al-fitoori’s works are almost completely set in the present tense.Declarative forms are stylistic features of al-Saegh’s poetry. He makes flashbacks to the past and depicts the scenes in a natural way. Nonetheless, unlike al-Saegh’s poetical works, most of al-fitoori’s odes are a combination of different kinds of verbal modalities in the macro-structure of odes. However, in Bseiso’s works, due to his wrathful spirit, the decisiveness and function of the declarative structure is highly common. He has explicitly expressed bus thoughts using this structure and humiliates and ridicules his enemies by drawing on imperative and interrogative structures. However, imperative structures are less frequent in al-Saegh’s works. Due to his bitterness towards war, he does not try to persuade the soldiers to fight. His obligatory participation in war has played a role in this matter and has led to him using declarative and narrative forms to retell and depicts the status quo of the country. The essay aspect of his sentences, which is mostly reflected in his interrogative modes, is in fact coveted in despair and disappointment.

The feminine literature is one of most important topics in contemporary literary criticism. following the Women's movement to achieve equal rights with men, “Feminine writing style” was developed as branch of feminist criticism in the mid-20Th century. According to feminists, men are not able to represent women's experiences in their works, so it is necessary to express these experiences in women's language.Using statistical- descriptive and analytical methods, this research has attempted to study the components of feminine writing in Hoda Barakat’s novel "Hajar al-dahk" in two lexical and syntactic layers. This result was obtained by studies: In lexical domain: intensifiers, hedges, repeated words and color terms, in syntactic domain: simple sentences, short sentences, compound sentences, incomplete sentences, and interrogative sentences used as soliloquies are among the components highlighted in the novel. It is worth mentioning that, although war literature demands its own language, this issue could have no significant impact on the type of language of the author, and she has maintained her own specific feminine language. The lost identity of women in society has played a significant role in shaping their particular language and could be the main cause of feminine writing components formation.

The two novels “House of Ghosts” and “Ostourah Al-Naddaha” from the “Supernatural” series by the Egyptian writer Ahmed Khaled Tawfik are the most famous and popular works of horror and fantasy among children and adolescents, where readers pay special attention to them in the eighties and nineties of the last century. This study aims to shed light on the study of the language component in these two novels on three levels: linguistic, grammatical, and rhetorical, in order to determine its basic features. The presence of verbs that indicate movement, the use of words that indicate ambiguity and doubt, the repetition of short and simple sentences, the lengthening of letters at the end of words, description, image, quotation and inclusion are the most important linguistic features in these two novels. The analysis of these features shows that their artistic employment in the context of the two novels has been successful, consistent with the elements of the story such as the subject, content, characters, space, etc., and it has a positive impact on the two novels.

Today, the study of narrative works’ form and structure has become one of the main concerns of contemporary narrators and storytellers. Accordingly, a significant number of books and papers have been literary created. Abdul Rahim al-Kurdi is one of the leading Egyptian contemporary writers who has made great efforts to explain theories of story analysis from the perspective of Russian formalists, French structuralists, and modern Western stylists in his book entitled “Contemporary Narration”. In this book, he has unique insight and mastery interpreted the views of contemporary Western critics. He has placed them as the infrastructure for the scientific analysis of the novel of “Alrjl Althi Fkd Thlh Nmouthja “. The present study attempts to analyze the “Alsrd fi Alrwaiah Alma’asrah” book in a descriptive-analytic way. Results revealed that although some of the presented issues in the book reflect prolixity, the author has tried to provide a formalistic analysis of narrative discourse.

The cohesion of poetic elements is one of the factors contributing to the organic unity of odes. Poetic cohesion is the result of various elements, especially coordinating conjunctions. In other words, the literariness of a text is the result of syntactic coordination. Since the early 20th century and with the advent of modernist literary movements in the Arab world, the subject of cohesion and coherence in odes has turned into a hot topic. In this regard, the structure of modern poetry is set free from the strict systematism of traditional poems, which was held by the poets of the 1950s as an important element of poetry. In other words, since a poetic context is made up of various phonetic, syntactic, rhetorical, and semantic structures, it is of necessity to find a way to connect these distinct structures. In other words, these structures are so distinct that, in order to capture the nuances involved in each area, each has turned into a distinct field of study. Therefore, the present study focuses on coordinating conjunctions, which are related to the syntactic layer. Furthermore, the existing cohesion is studied in larger linguistic units, i.e., sentences, and the type and usage of these links are analyzed by considering coordinating conjunctions and syntactic parallelism, structures lacking coordinating conjunctions and cause-and-effect relations. To this end, twenty odes by three resistance poets (Muin Bseiso, Muhammad al- Fitoori, and Adnan al-Saegh) are studied to answer the research questions a) What is the relationship between the context and the poetic components of the selected poems? and b) What are the most important elements in achieving syntactic cohesion in the works of these three poets?
The present research is a descriptive-analytical-comparative one. It seeks to study the syntactic cohesion and its types in twenty odes written by Bseiso, al- Fitoori, and al-Saegh.
Unlike Bseiso’s poems, referral compounds in al-Fitoori’s poems are used frequently. Such structures are tangible and undeniable ones which originate from the stagnation, dictatorship and colonialism existing in the society. The poem, consequently, shows this feeling and approach perfectly well by making use of coordinating conjunctions to link different sentences in the poem. This feature is indicative of the stagnation and dullness and removes the liveliness and speed of the words. On the other hand, Bseiso has combative and fierce spirits, and he rushes to oust the enemies and urges people to show up in battlefields. This makes his poems devoid of referral compounds. Al-Saegh’s poems are structurally different and arranged in a pleasing manner and, therefore, enjoy a high level of cohesion. Each sentence can be considered as a macro-structure in which several sentences are embedded and each macro-structure is repeated in the next structure with exactly the same coordination; the ode of ‘Maqate’’ can be a case in point. Unlike the other two poets, al-Fitoori makes extensive use of ‘uslub al-shart’ (conditionals) to express his and his people’s degree of resistance. This structure, in addition to coordination and musicality, sheds light on the poet’s thought in terms of meaning.
Studying the poems written by the poets of resistance yields the following a). Al-Fitoori has made use of coordination to link his sentences where a mystical feeling was dominant and no conjunctions were used. This is as if there is a feeling of divine intoxication and surprise to link the sentences together with no need for coordinating conjunctions.

b) Bseiso’s poetry, compared to al-Fitoori’s, makes use of these elements much less frequently in connecting the sentences. Bseiso’s wrath and belligerence have caused him to write sentence without any kind of link. In other words, his rush for ousting the enemies and encouraging people is a factor that has led to this feature in his poetry.
c) Al-Saegh’s poetry makes use of repetitive coordinations to link the sentences semantically and contextually. The different structure of his poem resembles more that of prose, and semantic relations are observed quite frequently. Furthermore, unlike Bseiso and al-Saegh, al-Fitoori makes extensive use of conditionals and the poet, quite vividly, depicts the toleration of torture, pain, and difficulty on the way to liberate one’s home country and ousting foreign colonialists. Furthermore, through cause-and-effect relationships, he actually warns his enemies against his seriousness and irreconcilability. However, such a cause-and-effect relationship can be achieved through a literary and emotional look which makes the audience ponder and delve into the details.

An Islamic play is a play that it's structure is presented in a special framework of the play؛ It's difference with other plays is in it's islamic perspective. The play Al-Hurr Al-Riyahi by Abdul Wahed Abdurrazzaq is included in the islamic play which is written with the focus on the events of Karbala, focusing on the character of Hurr Riyahi. Abdurrazzaq, through the character of Hurr and by recounting the event of Karbala, has linked it to the situation in Iraq at the time. Examine the structure of this play and the degree of it's adaptation to the reality of Ashura in drawing the course of events and discover the author's style caused to analyzed this work with descriptive and library analytical method and based on the structure of Gustav Freytag german theorist. The five principles of Freytag were derived from Aristotle's theories and includes: Introduction، Rising action ،Climax، Falling action and result. An analysis of the play shows that the author has departed from the conventional and classical principles of playwriting and has turned to postmodern theater and Bertolt Brecht؛ because Abdurrazzaq Abdul Wahed, knows the dimensions of the Karbala incident beyond that It can be expressed with a classic and conventional narrative. So in his play did not adhere to the conventional principles of playwriting and with his work Offers a suggestion in the field of Ashura playwriting.

Metafiction is the author's writing style and the style of consciously and deliberately playing on narrative structures and subjecting the skills of writing. By deviating or escaping from the established norms of traditional narrative and even adhering to it, metafiction tries to introduce the previous literariness and self-consciousness as a hollow  deviation, And expose the narrative tricks of claiming to be truthful - for the unrighteous purpose of absolute truthfulness - in order to prove that it is impossible to resolve the conflict between voices and ideologies by subjugating them under the voice of an omniscient and God-like author, And happily demonstrates the impossibility of the ultimate understanding of truth in the light of one-sided domination. Metafiction as a sub-genre, with its mentally processing and self-evaluative and dialectical annotations, seeks to clarify the truth with an enlightening reflection on the processes of creation of the story, and relying on Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, along with clarifying the nature of the story. Combined with the concept of relativism, game theory, as a way of properly understanding world routines, contributes to the realistic achievements of literature in the metafiction as a self-founded activity with definite value in the real world. By pretending to play roles and contracts of the game, the unstructured and arbitrary nature of the game, helps metafiction -while exploring the functions and seemingly known but practically unknown nature of the story- to shatter dysfunctional traditions and unpopular worldviews. In recognizing these Attitudes of recently known paradigm in metafiction, relying on descriptive-analytical research method and processing metafiction theory data, we intend especially from the point of view of "Patricia Waugh", to understand the efficiency of the components of metafiction and explain its qualities and the role of play in the promotion of making metafiction, in the novel The Game of Forgetting  by “Mohammad Baradeh”, to recognize the innovations of the first Arab step in the migration from the absolutist ideas of modernism in fictional factology. Researching these cases we found out that M.Barrada, in the application of tricky techniques like short-circuit, trick revelation, character rebellion, metafictonal collage, and arbitrary naming, he always acting gamefully, owes much to the principle of relativism and the multi-faceted nature of truth and and thus establishes a solid basis for Arabic metafiction.

The variety of parables and parable-like stories of Nahj al-Balaghah is of great significance from a stylistic and linguistic point of view, along with the religious, educational and moral functions such stories serve. The effectiveness of these literary genres is evident in their richness of themes, creating images, highlighting meaning, and showing the cultural and intellectual identity of the time. These seemingly short and independent phrases are semantically related to the other elements of the text, whose literary and cultural meaning could be analyzed through cognitive semantics. The present study applies a cognitive analysis of the types of imaginary schemas of these concise expressions in Nahj-al-Balaghah. To fulfill this aim, the selected proverbs were analyzed based on the model presented by Evans and Hans. The results indicate the existence of schemas of space, force, containment, balance, and locomotion, among which the schemas of space and containment were significantly frequent. There is a direct relationship between the frequency of imaginary schemas and the rate of animal names, elements of nature, human activity, and human organs in these parables. Addition of space and locomotion to these abstract phenomena leads to more effective communication and greater understanding of such concepts.

There is an unbreakable bond between myth and literature because of the same origin that they have in human unconsciousness. As the myth uses the capacities of literature, specially poem, to continue its existence, poets use the capacity of myth to make their poetry more beautiful and developed. The function of myth in literature, however, is not restricted to aesthetics. Today, the value of myth and its semantic and aesthetic approaches are undeniable. Myth definitely creates expansive meaning. Being related to celestial and holy affairs, its most important function is political and cultural, especially for men of letters who intend to write about these facts and consider literary works to have social commitment because myths can improve the social solidarity more and better and act as a support for human’s behavior.  Myth is considered as literature womb. When myth has been watered down for the presence of great and popular religions and religious statements, and lost its divine privileges among the people of enlightenment era, the most secure shelter for its living should be found in literature and unconsciousness of poets and writers. Rewriting myths in contemporary poems has become more complicated and diverse, compared with classic poems.  This paper is considered as the first work that intends to study the essence and function of myths in Persian and Arab literature based on Shamloo’s and Al-Bayati’s poems. It also tries to describe and explain the functions and reflections of myths in contemporary poetry using a problem based and recitative approach. There has been some researches done on comparative mythology such as the work by Qoqnoy and Finiq in Nima and Adonis poems.  

This study tries to consider the essence and function of myth in Persian and Arab poetry based on analytic and descriptive method to show the differences and similarities in Shamloo’s and Al-Bayati’s poems.   

Shamloo is one of the most popular and active poets of Persian literature, who is famous for innovating blank verse. The mythical symbols are mostly seen in his poems for their power of gaining the attention of the audience and provoking them. Shamloo has had different ways and goals in using myths. Shamloo’s poetry is of complicated and metaphoric language and with an epistemological aim on account of a problematic mind. Although political and social interpretations of his poems have caused many scholars to think that the main function of myths in his poems is political, but investigating his poems more exactly reveals another hidden aspect of his poetry, i.e., he has used national and Western myths due to describe his epistemological principles.  In other words, those functions depict the epistemological crisis of modernism. In his view, mentality and life of the modern human is irregular and distressed and his mind basis is irresolute and baffled. This human is pursuing the national and mythical past to find a peaceful resort. Myth for Shamloo is not a divine concept, but is a resort to justify new beliefs of epistemology. Human is his new myth in modern time. In his mentality, the myth of resourceful goddess is replaced with modern human. As he is greatly aware of the role of human during the era of humanism, he is going to decanonize ancient myths through the announcement of the death of old myths. In his view, the modern human’s ego is sorrowful and stuck in the non-heroic period with the death of mythical ideals. In Shamloo’s view, inversion of mythical narrations is justified because it represents the cognitive system of modern time and post-structural essence of those narrations. For example, he preferred to mention Christ crucifixion based on non-Islamic narrations and this approach may be an objection to the dominant narrations, so he shows a new function of myth in his poem besides engaging the reader’s mind with that. Also, the death of Nasseri in Poniard on the Plate is another narration about Jesus and his crucifixion. Abdolwahhab al-Bayati is one of the political and well known poets that his extreme political tendencies have caused him to be exiled from Iraq for some time and pass the rest of his life in Jordan. His painful life is completely reflected in his poems.  Since one of the ways for getting repose and peace in modern time is resorting to myths, this aim can be obtained by remaking the glorious past and incorporating it in the present situations.   Myths are the best resorts to Al-Bayati too. Obviously, this affair is in need of a new language and mind. He has used some relevant myths related to his community with respect to his own cultural area. Myths are in service of the social purposes of the poet in symbol. And, for him myth is a means of symbolic justification of political and social aims as he is trying to make the audience active by mentioning the mythical and legend role of Qoqnoos and integrating its function with society. Disappointment from the improvement of people’s conditions motivates Al-Bayati to use the compensatory function of myth. Sindbad myth and the hero’s quest archetype in it, is the best function at hand. He knows himself as Sisyphus in Arab society, the one who is usually being exiled and his effort for making people aware of negligence and passivity won’t pay off. He is expressing his dissatisfaction with living in contemporary society. He wants to show that he likes to live in a better world, but he believes that returning to the utopian world is not going to be possible unless joining the ancient time’s beliefs and the mythical period.

The results show that Shamloo has used myths more expansively and variously than Al-Bayati, whereas Al-Bayati has referred to Egyptian and Greek myths for his political and cultural intentions more. Shamloo planned on using mythical narrations of Rome and Greece frequently on the one hand and reproduction of Persian ones on the other hand. He has tried to reflect mythical narrations in his poems on based on metaphoric and symbolic language to find answers for his epistemological and philosophical questions in modern time. Shamloo has used myths in an original and deconstructive way and with an inversion of meaning. But, myth for Al-Bayati is a means of reproducing a more political and social atmosphere. Unlike Shamloo, who identifies himself with mythical heroes, the myths in Al-Bayati’s poetry are completely separable. In fact, he is going to make his readers be released from passivity. Furthermore, the poetic language of Al-Bayati is simpler and weaker than that of Shamloo. On the other hand, the epistemological function of myths in Shamloo’s poetry in combination with emotions and intuitional perceptions and poetic experiences caused his poems to be more complicated.

Each text has a style and can be examined. The Qur'an, as a divine and glorious text, can be studied and analyzed from various aspects, especially stylistics. Therefore, in this article, a descriptive-analytical method has been tried to analyze the phonetic, lexical, and syntactic structure of Surah Al-Balad based on stylistic principles. At the phonetic level, this surah has a kind of musical harmony and balance that is completely in line with the meaning and concept of the surah. This proportion, even in the choice of words and their specific structure, as well as in the use of special syntactic structures, expresses the worldview of its creator, that all these levels flow in a space of multiple meanings, as the beginning of the surah confirms. The ambiguity in words such as "father, son, and najdin" has caused different views in this surah, which can be partially analyzed and interpreted in connection with the general structure of the surah. On the other hand, lexical structure indicates the weight of "Mafalaton" in line with the certainty of meaning, emphasis, and exaggeration. Such choices, from the very beginning and with a special style, makes the audience think and think which in fact deepens and emphasizes the style of this surah indirectly and secretly by using the initial and different structure (La Oqsmo/ I do swear) and lexical ambiguity and expresses the miracle of the Qur'an.

The study of the vocabulary of poetry is one of the approaches used to evaluate a poetic style. Along with other layers of stylistics, namely syntax, rhetoric, and phonetics, it plays an essential role in analyzing the poets’ way of expressing themselves, and in studying a historical era or literary school. Since words form the structure of language, the study of the diction of literary texts is essential in understanding poetic style and language. Therefore, words should be considered the first tool that embodies poetic emotions and bring the poet into contact with the reader. Due to the importance of this linguistic element in literature, the present study tries to examine the linguistic layers in the poetry collection Sama fi Khozeh (Sky in a Helmet) by Adnan al-Sayegh, a contemporary Iraqi poet known for his resistance literature. The article tries to discover the connection of this layer with the content and form of the text, and the relationship of words with each other, and to determine the function of frequent poetic words. Based on the analysis conducted in this research, the words of this poetry collection have been selected in an entirely purposeful manner so that they correspond with the poet’s surroundings, and this is reflected in the title of the collection, too. The diction shows the contradiction of the spiritual (internal) and material (external) worlds through the centrality of the keywords “sky” and “helmet.” This has created a dialectic of endlessness and limitation. On the other hand, new lexical combinations have caused individuality and stylistic emphasis, and have given a different structure and a distinct style to the poems. Moreover, the concrete forms of words have been juxtaposed with their auditory and visual forms in an artistic manner.

The present study, alongside the value of the manuscriptology of Quran, makes a visual study of the opening pages of a collection of Qurans that have been preserved in Astan Quds Razavi from the 6th to the 9th century AH with the aim of laying stress on the layout, proportions, decorations and illumination. In this research, it is intended to find answers in connection with the layout feature of the opening pages in the Qurans that have been preserved in Astan Quds Razavi from the 6th to the 9th century AH and also the similarities and differences existing in the layout of the mentioned Qurans. Thus, in the above-mentioned Qurans, after the introduction, the opening page of the Qurans was examined, analyzed and discussed in terms of layout and decorations and notable results were obtained in this regard. It should be stated that the current study has been conducted by using a qualitative approach in which a historical, descriptive and analytical research method has been employed. Further, this research has been classified and then analyzed while having targeted statistical population and sequential sampling in the direction of maximum differences and similarities. Based on the findings obtained from the present research, it has been demonstrated that the layout of the Qurans’ opening pages has had an evolutionary movement from the 6th to the 9th century AH. In the Seljuk period, we observe that scribing and calligraphy have had significant growth and the sextet hands were also regulated and systematized. Moreover, during this era, skilled well-known scribes wrote the words of Allah on the surface of the paper. In the mentioned period, Kufic and Riqa’ scripts were applied more than any other scripts in the writing of the Quran. In the decoration of the Qurans, geometric forms consisting of regular polygons, circles and arabesques limited to twisted lines and limited simple bergamots and colors such as brown, vermilion, black and especially golden color were used. In layout proportions, the priority was the blank space and the artist paid special attention to this issue. It should be also noted that the greatest surface, in most cases, has been dedicated to the central inscription and the upper and lower inscriptions in some Qurans did not have equal proportions. From the first periods, the artists were familiar with the ruler and cleverly took into consideration the lineation and line space. These artists even accurately placed the sign of verses over the last verse, which also continued in later periods. In the Ilkhanid period, it can be seen that composition and layout became more consistent and more orderly and the layout principles were more closely respected and the blank space was reduced in this era. The use of golden and azure colors, along with colors used in the previous periods, became widespread. Geometric forms kept their place alongside some naturalistic elements such as arabesque foliage and colorful Khataei designs in the page. Motifs of flowers and cloud-shape margins and hachures and sometimes arabesques in this period, along with verses, featured in the central inscription. Scribed Qurans in the Timurid era were principled and systematic in terms of structure and using naturalistic elements and elegant designs. The maximum use of the blank space of the margin by wide lassos with azure rays of light in the opening pages attracts the attention of the viewer. In addition, dynamic proportions were found more than the static proportions in the aforesaid Qurans. The application of golden, azure and vermilion colors, along with other various colors, was among the main characteristics of decorations in this period. Also, in proportions of the components, the greatest part has been allocated to the epigraph after the lasso and the central inscription, and the smallest part has been dedicated to the lower inscriptions. Verses have been also written on the inscriptions with Sols, Riqa’ and Reyhan scripts. Finally, it can be mentioned that since the beginning page of the Divine Word has been considered as the most important part in the writing of Qurans, it has also been of crucial importance in terms of layout, proportions and illumination in the page. Therefore, the art of scribing, from the 6th to the 9th century AH, has advanced from a simple and unadorned form towards integrated and elaborate designs, and decorations in Qurans have been also considered as an aesthetic element in layout. Further, the composition of proportions and division of the components were based on a certain order. Hence, geometrical structure, proportion and balance are of great importance in the layout of the Qurans under study and the scribe has observed these principles based on the science, technology and art which have been popular in his own time and thus has created beautiful and unmatched compositions.