dariush rahmanian

The judicial system in the Qajar era is the history of a nation that was formed within the framework of certain cultural conditions and political structures, laws that reflect the traditions, customs, rituals and ceremonies and set of values ​​of that nation. And due to the lack of codified laws, it had many shortcomings due to the royal tyranny and the spirit of secrecy, the spirit of anti-regulation and self-centeredness, relationalism, and irrationality in decision-making. In the present study, while dealing with the Iranian judicial system from the perspective of European travel writers, the issue of whether the reform of the judicial system was a function of change in the legal structure or the political and social structure of society with the constitutional movement aimed at limiting the monarchy and its axis The establishment of the rule of law, which has always played an important and key role in the transformation or progress or underdevelopment of societies, was the most fundamental and unsuccessful event in creating a fundamental change in the administrative and executive structure of the country. In this research, an attempt has been made to use the method of analyzing the content of sources and references of this period while presenting the description of the characteristics of the judicial system of the Qajar period in European travelogues of its inadequacies, inadequacies, structural anomalies. To reform this system, the causes and factors of the failure of these efforts to recognize the roots of the continuation of the heterogeneous.

With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, a part of its territory was split among the Allies, leading to the formation of many countries, including Iraq. Iran regarded the territory of Iraq up to the Euphrates as a part of its territory since ancient time and had clashed with the Ottomans for centuries to achieve this goal and saw the Versailles Peace Congress to raise this demand after the conclusion of the war. However, the great powers, particularly Britain, had envisaged a different destiny for Iraq, and as a consequence, Iraq became Iran's western neighbor. Therefore, it is clear that, from this point on, Iran's stance toward the newly created Iraq was impacted by a historical backdrop which caused the Iranian government to refuse to recognize this country for years. This prompted the Iraqi government, fomented by the British Empire and seeking to consolidate its influence, to exert pressure on Iran through measures such as the deportation of Iranian religious scholars who criticized British trusteeship, canceling the capitulation of Iranian citizens in Iraq, as well as border disputes. Finally, this turmoil, combined with other national and international issues, compelled Iran to recognize Iraq. As a result, the problem of the present research is to know why and how the newly established Iraq was recognized by Iran after many years. Also, this research employs a descriptive approach, drawing on Persian and Arabic texts and sources from the historical era in question to study and explain the causes or factors impacting these relationships, as well as their shifts and evolutions.

Establishing order in the society is one of the central issues of the Reza Shahi period (1925-1940). After reaching the kingdom, Reza Shah brought about fundamental changes in Shahrbani. One of the ways to know the contemporary history of Iran, besides using official chronicles, is to examine literary texts. The purpose of this article is to show the value and importance of research in literary texts and sources for historical researches by relying and emphasizing on a specific example, Shahrbani of Rezashah. Let it be discussed and explored and also turn it into a question in historical researches and clarify the corners and strains of the subject of the case study - that is Shahrbani Rezashahi - as much as possible. In this research, to represent the performance of Shahrbani in Persian fiction, the approach of people's history was inspired. People's history is a type of history writing that examines and narrates history and events based on the role and position of people. Twelve literary works were selected to examine the subject. The findings of the research show that fiction literature, along with public documents, is one of the sources that can be used to shed light on corners and strains of history. In this article, it was shown that the performance of police forces is significantly represented in the literary texts related to the period of Rezashahi. Examining the works in question showed that during the period of Rezashahi, the writers' attention was mostly on issues related to the treatment of prisoners and the way to identify criminals, but the writers of the later periods focused more on issues such as how to pursue crimes and censorship.

During Reza Shah's reign, the policies of centralization, authoritarian modernity, and national unity led to reforms in the field of education. This period is considered as an important period in the history of Iran due to the efforts leading the society towards modern education in the shadow of nationalism and centralism. The present article seeks to answer this question, "What effects did the nationalist and centralist policies of Reza Shah era have on the situation of schools of religious minorities (Armenians, Zoroastrians and Jews)?" This work implemented a descriptive-analytical method and relied on the available documents. At that time, religious minority schools were affected by these two policies. In some educational programs, schools activities were not in line with the new educational policy, and there was resistance from the minority community, which challenged the schools. The findings of this study show that education among religious minorities was affected by the new changes in terms of Persian language teaching, curriculum, school names, holidays and extracurricular activities. The closure for some schools was permanent and their students merged into public schools, and for some schools, it was temporary (one or more months) until they were required to implement the ministry programs. The reason for their resistance to the new educational policy was the tendency towards educational independence and the fear of losing their identity, and the consequence was the relative control of the government and the dissatisfaction of the minorities with the rule of the time.

By virtue of the Iranian Constitution, Islamic Consultative Assembly enjoys some authorities in the foreign policy of the country. As such, along with institutions including the Leadership and the Supreme Council of National Security and the government, it can be influential in foreign policy. One of the most important political events which made the country and particularly the Islamic Consultative Assembly involved in the events after the end of the war between Iran and Iraq is Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990. Considering the importance of this issue, this paper is an attempt to deal with the role and approach of the Islamic Consultative Assembly in this regard. Hence, the problem addressed is the effect of the Iranian parliamant on Iran's way of deciding on the issue of war. It is an attempt to investigate the parliamentary positions taking a descriptive- analytical approach. The results show that the existence of institutions, such as the Supreme Council of National Security and the government with special authorities in foreign policy, the specialized nature of political issues, the scarcity of experienced forces and the slowness of the decision-making process in the parliament due to structural features as well as the separation between the parliament and the government in investigating the issue led to a lack of serious influence of the parliament.

The purpose of this article is the conceptualization of the consequences of the commercialization phenomenon in western Iran. The main issue of the paper is the explanation of the effect of agriculture commercialization, which is being examined that, why and how this phenomenon occurs. The research approach is qualitative. Data was collected from the archives of library documents and resources, based on targeted sampling. The method of analysis is grounded theory. The findings show that the evolutionary process of commercialization of agriculture in western Iran during the middle Qajar period to the end of the Pahlavi, led to the collapse of the Islamic system, the collapse of the rural landlord and the development of urbanization. Similarly, the two-polarization of agriculture, the development of the poles of capitalist agriculture, along with the expertise of land-use knowledge and the rise in the value of individual labor and the mechanization of agriculture, were among the other consequences of commercialization of agriculture in western Iran. The dependence of Iran's economic system, the global climate of global domination, and the need for international markets, have led to the production of commercial products, along with a huge disparity in the cultivation of commercial products (such as opium and beet), compared with the cultivation of wheat and barley, were among the major factors in changing the pattern of cultivation and development and the development of commercial agriculture in western Iran.

Robbery, as the most common and widespread social maladjustment, not only had a clear negative impact on social security, but also involved all parts of society. In other words, there were burglars in almost all segments of the community, and they were committing acts of robbery with different motives and intentions. In the Naserian period, people of various classes of society were involved in this social anomaly. Of these, one can mention to looties, soldiers, and menservants, about whom there are numerous reports of thievery acts. In this research, the author intends to study the robbery of the manservants and its underlying factors. Based on this, the paper will try to answer two questions: First, what factors have been the cause of the robbery of the manservants during the Naserid period? Secondly, what methods and means of stealing did they use? Findings of the research indicate that the factor of migration and social inequality and low income, as well as the notion that servants considered theft as a certain right, can be considered as the underlying factors behind their robberies.

From the start of the Qajar government to the early 14th century, Persian Gulf ports and islands were often governed by the Fars governor and decentralized. But in Naseri era, since the foundation of a new institution, "Governing the Persian Gulf ports and Islands", in the year 1305 higri, the running of all the regions was centrally governed  by ports governor  that was elected from the center. In this article, we will pay to the view on the formation method of this new founded institution with descriptive and analytical approach in Nasser’s Era The findings of this research show that In Nasseri’s Era with the appearance of aware men and experts like Amir Kabir and his actual performance in Persian Gulf and appointment of efficient governors in Fars and the support of southern traders, gradually made a revision in running in method of south ports. After a short period, the main result was the cancelling of port rental system which resulted in the foundation of ports governance and Persian Gulf islands with Bushehr in centre by Amin-al-soltan in 1305hegira. The foundation of the new institution as the center running of ports and south island countered a lot of the problems actually and desirable results were not obtained.

Pahlavi's magisterial modernity has brought changes in Iranian society. Afterwards, the everyday life of people, including their entertainment, has changed. The clerics saw some of these changes in conflict with the Islamic Shari'a and thus criticized this situation. The aim of this research is to study the approach of Darsshaee az Maktab-e Islam (Lessons from the School of Islam), the most popular and durable religious magazine during Pahlavi period, towards the common entertainment of that era. The main questions of this research are which characteristics of common entertainments of that period criticized more by writers of this magazine? From their point of view, which factors led to the promotion of unhealthy entertainment? This research has been done in descriptive method. The findings of this research indicates that in the years preceding the 28 Mordad coup d'état the free consumption of alcoholic beverages was considered the great sin by the religious persons. After the coup, due to the increasing of sexual contents in the press and cinematic films, the criticism of writers of the Maktab-e Islam magazine focused on this issue more than any other subject. During the early days of its publication, regarding the reason for the spread of unhealthy amusements the writers of the magazine raised the possibility that Colonialists are going to stupefied individuals in order to dominate the society. At the end of Pahlavi era and under the influence of the leftist intellectuals, they emphasized on the Western Capitalism’ usage of these tools for stupefying the society in order to maintain its influence and gain more benefit.

Following the occupation of Iran by the Allies on September 1941 and Reza shah’s withdrawal from the political constitution of power, process of generating the despotic state in Iran collapsed and the centralized sources of power in to large extend were dispersed. In new social-political atmosphere in which the domination of king and court on the movement of culture, especially on education was curtailed, the supreme council of culture as one of the most important official decision making and observing institution over the realm of education, affected considerably by this atmosphere and some changes occurred in its content of encasements and curriculum. This paper tries to answer this question: what were the reasons, grounds and outcomes of the change in the content of encasement and curriculum of the supreme council of culture from September 1941 till August 1953. In reply we can say, despite the maintaining and constancy of the inherited structure of council from Reza shah’s era, the constitution which had been made for the absolute domination of Pahlavi regime and the state over the education, influenced by the political and social reforms and fairly open-critically atmosphere after Reza shah’s era and regained slightly the institutional place of the state and The Nation consultative parliament. In to some extent decreased the affection of political actors over the education on be half of the policies of the court. In this atmosphere, individuals with different political and intellectual interests such as (Islamic, Nationalist, leftist) entered the council, found an opportunity for role-playing in preparation and approbation of ideas and subjects for different than previous periods in the content of education. The dominant social-political atmosphere of society such as the activities of parties and different committees of social, political and the press has been affected in this case.

The role of Sheikh Hadi Najmabadi in creation of the constitutional system of Iran is shown in this paper. He died before Constitutional Movement but some of persons, who had attended his gatherings and learnt his doctrine, had basic activites in that important historical event, by using of his teachings. His role in the constitutional system of Iran is meant by knowing them.

Western travel writers, particularly in two recent centuries, have been the outside reporters of situation in Iran that can be interpreted as situation of civilizational-cultural decline and backwardness. Special climatic and geographical condition in Iran, drought, shortage of water and hydraulic foundation particularly qanats were phenomena which made them pay attention to. In to recent centuries which have been the period of insecurity and chaos, building and keeping the hydraulic foundations faced a lot of problems. so numerous foundation especially qanats and following that many villages and agricultural fields were going to destroy. Foreign travel writers who looked outside sensitive, informed, and curious inspectors recorded most careful and influenced reports about this process and mutual relationship with current process of decline in Iran. The purpose of this article is presenting regular and systematic analysis of those reports. According to those reports, natural and historical events; despotism; lawlessness; management crisis; spread of oppression and insecurity; the successive attacks of internal and marginal tribes; cultural, moral, and educational conditions; a kind of questions related to politics and foreign relationship such as land burning policy and some territorial and marginal difficulties related to recent era; numbers of neighboring countries and government; and at last damaging results and consequences of world wars in 20th century have been the most important factors of extinction of water foundations and following that damaging of Iran’s villages, rural areas, and towns. In this article, this process is interpreted as the process of decline and downfall of hydraulic or qanat civilization.

During the 19th century a significant number of Iranians commuted to the Ottoman Turkey or even lived there. In the texts and documents of the Qajar era we can find a multitude of data on the Ottoman Turkey which reflect the various civilizational and cultural situations of that time. It is very important to have scientific approach towards collecting, compiling and analyzing this data as a means to better understanding the circumstances under which modernization burgeoned in the two countries. The books of travel of itinerary accounts written by the travelers of that time contain a huge amount of detailed descriptions about the Ottoman Turkey of the time. The current article undertakes to assess Mirza Saleh Shirza’s book of travel which is important with regard to the first penetration of modern thought into Iran. As the reader can follow the prosperity and progress of Russia and England in the accounts given by Mirza Saleh in his book of travel, he can also observe the decline of the Ottoman Empire after its zenith.

The general trend of political, military and economic power of Iran in a period of time which started by the fall of Safavids and ended up to Constitutional Revolution, has negative slope and is usually referred (interpreted) as declining of Iran. During this time, the continuation of expanding relations of Iran with other countries which was begun beforehead, had prepared an appropriate context for creation of travel accounts by those who came to Iran withdifferent attitudes. The creators of these accounts regarding above mentioned time, were carriers of west modernity, accordingly, although the majority of them are involved in orientalism detriments and using concepts such as oriental despotism, decline of east and that of backwardness of east, however, they saw the problems of Iran from a new perspective which is absent in Iranian documents. They posed different reasons for this, which is important. The dominant side of these reasons were political, particularly, the policy of Iranian government. According to this viewpoint, the rulership and centralization of political and economic issues in the form of monocracy, has provided a background for appearance of corruption, cruelty and oppression, insecurity and foreign intervention, which in turn resulted in declining of Iran in this period. Examining the viewpoint of foreign travelogue writers may reveal the faults of oriental view; on the other hand it may open a new lookout toward better understanding of the Iran history.

After the second Treaty of Erzurum, which was signed in May 1847 / 1263 hijri, it was expected that the signature of the treaty will be an end to conflict between Iran and Ottoman on the 'Atabat-e 'Aliat issue.But, the continuous flow of caravans of pilgrims and transfer of corpses to 'Atabat-e 'Aliat has created new problems in Iran - Ottoman relations.The behaviors of Ottoman agents and officials with Iranian caravans of corpses transfer in the borders were always strict and annoying.The pretext of Ottoman administration for response to the objections of Iranian government for such behaviors was referred to its concerns about Cholera outbreak and its threat for the population of the Ottoman territory. In this paper, it has been tried to analyze the problems those have been emerged in Iran - Ottoman relations on the issue of caravans of pilgrims and corpses transfer those have been in frequent traveling from Iran to the holy cities of Iraq. The authors tried to evaluate the effects of those problems on the political relationship between the two countries.

The aim of this article is to signify the problem of Iranian citizenry in Atabaat Aliyaat with the attitude and remedy of Iran and Ottoman Empire for solving these problems. It seemed that after the conclusion of second Erzurum treaty (2nd Jumada al-thani 1263 AH/ 31 May 1847 AD) conflicts between Iran and Ottoman Empire would be solved in a peaceful fashion, whereas the vast presence of Iranians in Atabaat Aliyaat and the social, legal and financial problems that Ottoman government posed for them, sorely destabilized the Irano - Ottoman Empire relation. The efforts of two governments for solving this crisis were indecisive until the end of Qajar period.

The concept of "Rokn-e Rabe‘" is a fundamental concept in Sheykhism School The popular theory is that This conception was founded by Sheikh Ahmad Ahsaei (the founder of Sheykhism) and promoted by Sayyed Kazim Rashti (the Sheykh Ahmad’s successor, but on the basis of valuable researches and the most important original resources of this School, which will be used in this essay, it seems Haj Mohammad Karimkhan Kermani was the first who created that meaning as one of the religious principles and a basic tuition of Sheykhism, the man who was the first leader of Kerman’s Sheykhism branch. This essay tries to explain how has this subject been done and what did effect to Sheykhism evolution process and its separating in to Kerman, Tabriz and other branches, by a descriptive-analytic method. Moreover, this article tries to answer how the meaning of "Rokne Rabe‘" which belonged to Kerman’s branch, was extended to all of the Sheykhism, the answers which are very important and essential to receive a more exact and correct Knowledge about this School.